Animal by-products collagen and derived peptide, as important components of innovative sustainable food systems-a comprehensive review.

In 2020, the world's food crisis and health industry ushered into a real outbreak. On one side, there were natural disasters such as the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), desert locusts, floods, and droughts exacerbating the world food crisis, while on the other side, the social development and changes in lifestyles prompted the health industry to gradually shift from a traditional medical model to a new pattern of prevention, treatment, and nourishment. Therefore, this article reviews animal by-products collagen and derived peptide, as important components of innovative sustainable food systems. The review also considered the preparation, identification, and characterization of animal by-product collagen and collagen peptides as well as their impacts on the food system (including food processing, packaging, preservation, and functional foods). Finally, the application and research progress of animal by-product collagen and peptide in the food system along with the future development trend were discussed. This knowledge would be of great significance for a comprehensive understanding of animal by-product collagen and collagen peptides and would encourage the use of collagen in food processing, preservation, and functional foods.

The dietary replacement of marine ingredients by terrestrial animal and plant alternatives modulates the antiviral immune response of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

The effects of replacing marine ingredients by terrestrial ingredients on the health of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) are poorly understood. During a 14-week trial, Atlantic salmon fed a fish meal-fish oil based diet (MAR) showed similar growth performance to others fed a plant protein/vegetable oil based diet (VEG), whereas poorer performance was observed in those fed an animal by-product meal/vegetable oil based diet (ABP). At the end of the trial, salmon were injected with either phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) or the viral mimic polyriboinosinic polyribocytidylic acid (pIC) and sampled for head kidney RNA after 24 h. The levels of 27 immune-related transcripts, and of 5 others involved in eicosanoid synthesis (including paralogues in both cases) were measured in the head kidney of the salmon using qPCR. All of the assayed immune-related genes and cox2 were pIC-induced, while the other eicosanoid synthesis-related genes were pIC-repressed. Linear regression was used to establish correlations between different immune transcripts, elucidating the cascade of responses to pIC and specialization among paralogues. Regarding the effect of diet on the antiviral immune response, pIC-treated fish fed diets ABP and VEG showed higher transcript levels of tlr3, irf1b, stat1a, isg15b, and gig1 compared to those fed diet MAR. We infer that the observed dietary immunomodulation could be due to the lower proportion of arachidonic acid (ARA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in diets ABP and VEG. Furthermore, our results suggest a major role of dietary ARA in Atlantic salmon immunity, as low ARA proportion in diet VEG coincided with the highest pIC-induction of some immune transcripts (tlr7, stat1c, mxb, and gig1) and the lowest levels of transcripts encoding eicosanoid-synthesizing enzymes (5loxa, 5loxb, and pgds). In contrast, the high ARA/EPA ratio of diet ABP appeared to favor increased expression of transcripts involved in the synthesis of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids (5loxa and 5loxb) and chemotaxis (ccl19b). In conclusion, our findings show that nutritionally balanced plant-based diets may enhance the immune response of Atlantic salmon. Future studies should explore the possible advantages of plant-based diets in Atlantic salmon exposed to a viral infection.

Bioprocess to valorise fleshing produced in the tanning industry.

This study focuses on circular bioeconomy and how to reduce the management of solid by-products in tannery facilities. To achieve this, double enzymatic hydrolysis has been developed, which allows the integrated management of both limed and fresh fleshing that are classified as category 3 animal by-products (ABPs). Fleshing has an average content of 15% fat, 20% protein and 65% water. To process these components independently, the fat fraction is separated from the protein and liquid protein fractions. This bioprocess has been developed from fleshing, yielding up to 78% mass recovery as biostimulants that are suitable for formulation and use in the fertiliser market. The efficacy of the protein fraction as a biostimulant was validated through laboratory tests, specifically by cabbage germination, which exhibited a notable improvement by 25%.

Modelling and assessing additional transmission routes for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus: Vehicle movements and feed ingredients.

Accounting for multiple modes of livestock disease dissemination in epidemiological models remains a challenge. We developed and calibrated a mathematical model for transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), tailored to fit nine modes of between-farm transmission pathways including: farm-to-farm proximity (local transmission), contact network of batches of pigs transferred between farms (pig movements), re-break probabilities for farms with previous PRRSV outbreaks, with the addition of four different contact networks of transportation vehicles (vehicles to transport pigs to farms, pigs to markets, feed and crew) and the amount of animal by-products within feed ingredients (e.g., animal fat or meat and bone meal). The model was calibrated on weekly PRRSV outbreaks data. We assessed the role of each transmission pathway considering the dynamics of specific types of production (i.e., sow, nursery). Although our results estimated that the networks formed by transportation vehicles were more densely connected than the network of pigs transported between farms, pig movements and farm proximity were the main PRRSV transmission routes regardless of farm types. Among the four vehicle networks, vehicles transporting pigs to farms explained a large proportion of infections, sow = 20.9%; nursery = 15%; and finisher = 20.6%. The animal by-products showed a limited association with PRRSV outbreaks through descriptive analysis, and our model results showed that the contribution of animal fat contributed only 2.5% and meat and bone meal only .03% of the infected sow farms. Our work demonstrated the contribution of multiple routes of PRRSV dissemination, which has not been deeply explored before. It also provides strong evidence to support the need for cautious, measured PRRSV control strategies for transportation vehicles and further research for feed by-products modelling. Finally, this study provides valuable information and opportunities for the swine industry to focus effort on the most relevant modes of PRRSV between-farm transmission.

Analysis of Food Storage Stability of Biodegradable Containers Made of Pork Skin Gelatin Polymer with Walnut Shell Powder.

This study analyzes the food storage stability of biodegradable containers made of pork skin gelatin polymer. Packaging materials were prepared with different proportions of walnut shell powder, including 10% (W10), 20% (W20), and polyethylene packaging (PE) as a control. To analyze storage stability, parameters such as pH, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), volatile basic nitrogen (VBN), microbial population, and color were measured. The pH, yeast and mold, redness, and yellowness of W10 and W20 had no significant difference compared to those of PE in all storage periods (p > 0.05). The TBARS of W20 was shown to slowly increase compared to W10. The VBN concentration of W10 and W20 were significantly higher than that of PE in the first and second weeks, but there was no significant difference in the third week (p < 0.05). The total bacterial counts of W10 and W20 were significantly higher than that of PE during the first week (p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference thereafter (p > 0.05). The lightness values of W10 and W20 were significantly lower than that of PE in the second and third weeks (p < 0.05). These results indicated that biodegradable containers containing up to 20% walnut shell powder can substitute plastic packaging materials.

Native feedstock options for the polyhydroxyalkanoate industry in Europe: A review.

The United Nations defined 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2016 and agreed on fighting to confront the climate change and protecting the oceans and forests. Subsequently, the sustainable production of bioplastics is gradually gaining reputation and significance. With the usage of bioplastics such as biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) various SDGs would be tackled, but costs remain a crucial factor for competing against fossil-based plastics. Appropriate local feedstock selection can help to reduce the production costs and minimize transportation routes. In this work, four feedstock generations are introduced and respective conversion strategies to PHA are presented. Whilst the focus is on mapping the abundances of feedstocks and potential PHA production capacities in Europe, utilization of animal by-product streams is also highlighted as a rather unconventional but highly abundant feedstock for PHA production.

Evaluation of the application for new alternative biodiesel production process for rendered fat including Category 1 animal by-products (BDI-RepCat® process, AT).

A new alternative method for the production of biodiesel from rendered fat, including animal by-product (ABP) Category 1 tallow, was evaluated. The method consists of a conversion phase, based on esterification and transesterification in a single step (at temperature ≥ 200°C, pressure ≥ 70 bar with a retention time ≥ 15 min), using MgO as a catalyst and in the presence of methanol (10-15%), followed by vacuum distillation (at ≥ 150°C, ≤ 10 mbar) of the end-product, biodiesel and the co-product, glycerine. Prions (PrPS c), which are abnormal isoforms of the prion protein, were considered by the applicant to be the most resistant hazard. In accordance with previous EFSA Opinions and current expert evaluation, a reduction in prion infectivity, or detectable PrPS c, of at least 6 log10 should be achieved for the process to be considered equivalent to the processing method laid down in the Regulation (EU) No 142/2011. Published data from an experimental replication of the conversion step of the biodiesel production process under consideration were provided, which showed an at least 6 log10 reduction in detectable PrPS c, by Western blot, in tallow that had been spiked with murine and human prion strains. In addition, it was demonstrated that the presence of methanol does not affect the recovery or detection of PrPS c from a biodiesel substrate. Based on scientific literature, the vacuum distillation step has been shown to be capable of achieving an additional 3 log10 reduction in PrPS c. Therefore, the proposed alternative method is considered to be at least equivalent to the processing method laid down in the legislation for the production of biodiesel from raw materials including Category 1 ABP.

Hygienization of mixed animal by-product using pulsed electric field in a continuous treatment system: Synergistic effect with ohmic heating on the inactivation of indicator bacteria.

Thermal hygienization of waste animal by-products (ABP) before anaerobic digestion is imposed by EU regulations in order to minimize its sanitary risk during digestate land application. This process is energy and time consuming. The present paper deals with the hygienization of ABP using pulsed electric field (PEF) in a continuous system. Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 19433 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 were tested as indicator bacteria characterizing the microbial inactivation efficiency. Four electric field strengths (15, 20, 25 and 30 kV∙cm-1) were applied to the continuous treatment chamber where circulated the ABP suspension. Synergistic effect of PEF and ohmic heating (Tave = 41 °C) and single effect of PEF (Tave = 28 °C) on bacterial inactivation were investigated. With the effect of ohmic heating, PEF treatment at 25 and 30 kV∙cm-1 for 0.9 ms could obtain 5-log10 reduction of Ent. faecalis. This efficiency complies with the EU criteria to validate an alternative hygienization process. The time estimated by Weibull model for 5-log10 reduction of both indicator bacteria (5-D value) was significantly reduced by 2-24.5 times when the synergistic effect of PEF and ohmic heating was present. The increase in electric field strength from 25 kV∙cm-1 to 30 kV∙cm-1 did not amount to a further inactivation. PEF process coupling ohmic heating at 25 kV∙cm-1 was the most efficient for ABP hygienization among the four electric field strengths studied.

Evaluation of the application for a new alternative processing method for animal by-products of Category 3 material (ChainCraft B.V.).

EFSA received an application from the Dutch Competent Authority, under Article 20 of Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 and Regulation (EU) No 142/2011, for the evaluation of an alternative method for treatment of Category 3 animal by-products (ABP). It consists of the hydrolysis of the material to short-carbon chains, resulting in medium-chain fatty acids that may contain up to 1% hydrolysed protein, for use in animal feed. A physical process, with ultrafiltration followed by nanofiltration to remove hazards, is also used. Process efficacy has been evaluated based on the ability of the membrane barriers to retain potential biological hazards present. Small viruses passing the ultrafiltration membrane will be retained at the nanofiltration step, which represents a Critical Control Point (CCP) in the process. This step requires the Applicant to validate and provide certification for the specific use of the nanofiltration membranes used. Continuous monitoring and membrane integrity tests should be included as control measures in the HACCP plan. The ultrafiltration and nanofiltration techniques are able to remove particles of the size of virus, bacteria and parasites from liquids. If used under controlled and appropriate conditions, the processing methods proposed should reduce the risk in the end product to a degree which is at least equivalent to that achieved with the processing standards laid down in the Regulation for Category 3 material. The possible presence of small bacterial toxins produced during the fermentation steps cannot be avoided by the nanofiltration step and this hazard should be controlled by a CCP elsewhere in the process. The limitations specified in the current legislation and any future modifications in relation to the end use of the product also apply to this alternative process, and no hydrolysed protein of ruminant origin (except ruminant hides and skins) can be included in feed for farmed animals or for aquaculture.

The anaerobic digestion of pig carcase with or without sugar beet pulp, as a novel on-farm disposal method.

Anaerobic digestion was investigated as a potential method for on-farm disposal of fallen stock (pig carcases), degrading the carcase material to produce biogas and digestate. The effects of feedstock (sugar beet pulp or pig carcase material or a 50:50 mix) and organic loading rate (50 g-TS L-1 or 100 g-TS L-1), during mesophilic (35 °C) anaerobic digestion were investigated. Anaerobic digestion was achieved for all experimental treatments, however the pig carcase material at the higher organic loading rate produced the second highest methane yield (0.56 Nm3 kg-VS-1 versus a range of 0.14-0.58 Nm3 kg-VS-1 for other treatments), with the highest percentage of methane in total biogas (61.6% versus a range of 36.1-55.2% for all other treatments). Satisfactory pathogen reduction is a legislative requirement for disposal of carcase material. Pathogens were quantified throughout the anaerobic digestion process. Enterococcus faecalis concentrations decreased to negligible levels (2.8 log10 CFU g-TS-1), whilst Clostridium perfringens levels remained unaffected by treatment throughout the digestion process (5.3 ±â€¯0.2 log10 CFU g-TS-1).

Comparative Study on Compositions and Functional Properties of Porcine, Chicken and Duck Blood.

Hematological, chemical and functional characteristics of porcine, chicken and duck blood were evaluated. A porcine blood sample showed the most abundant red blood cell, hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume and plasma protein content as well as its freeze-dried blood possessed the highest contents of protein, fat, Cu and Cr with the highest percentage of heme iron (p<0.05). Unlike porcine blood, chicken blood showed a well balance in some essential amino acids, specifically for a higher isoleucine content (p<0.05). Furthermore, it possessed the highest contents of carbohydrate, Zn and non-heme iron (p<0.05). The most rapid response to form a strong gel, especially at 70°C and 80°C, was found in chicken blood, followed by duck and porcine blood, respectively. The result of emulsion activity index (EAI) and emulsion stability index (ESI) at the low protein concentration indicated that chicken blood had the most superior emulsion properties (p<0.05). Regarding duck blood, it exhibited the highest content of Mg and Mn (p<0.05). Moreover, duck blood had similar foaming properties to porcine blood in which they showed higher values than chicken blood (p<0.05). Specific characteristics of blood were therefore diminished by animal species in which this information could be used as food supplementation or product development based on their potential applications.

Evaluation of the Application for new alternative biodiesel production process for rendered fat of Cat 1 (BDI-RepCat process, AT).

A new alternative method for the production of biodiesel from rendered fat of all categories of animal by-products was assessed. The process was compared to the approved biodiesel production process described in Chapter IV Section 2 D of Annex IV of Commission Regulation (EU) 142/2011. Tallow derived from Category 1 material is treated according to Method 1 from the same Regulation (133°C, 20 min, 3 bar) and subsequently mixed with 15% methanol, heated to reaction temperature (220°C) in several heat exchangers and transferred into the continuous conversion reactor by means of a high pressure pump (80 bar) for 30 min. In the conversion phase, there is an exposure to methanol in the absence of alkaline or acidic conditions. The impact of this procedure on the thermostability of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) has not been assessed in the literature. After the reaction, the biodiesel/glycerol mixture is distilled under vacuum at a minimum temperature of 150°C and a maximum pressure of 10 mbar, which is equivalent to the distillation step in the approved biodiesel production process, for which a 3 log10 reduction factor in PrP27-30 was obtained. Therefore, a similar level of TSE infectivity reduction could be expected for that phase of the method. A previous EFSA Opinion established that a reduction of 6 log10 in TSE infectivity should be achieved by any proposed alternative method in order to be equivalent to the approved processing method. This level of reduction has not been shown with experimental trials run under conditions equivalent to the ones described for the RepCat process. It was not possible to conclude whether or not the level of TSE infectivity reduction in the RepCat process is at least of 6 log10. Therefore, it was also not possible to conclude about the equivalence with the approved biodiesel production process.

Detecting animal by-product intake using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS).

Sheep are used in many countries as food and for manufacturing bioproducts. However, when these animals consume animal by-products (ABP), which is widely prohibited, there is a risk of transmitting scrapie - a fatal prion disease in human beings. Therefore, it is essential to develop sensitive methods to detect previous ABP intake to select safe animals for producing biopharmaceuticals. We used stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) for 13C and 15N to trace animal proteins in the serum of three groups of sheep: 1 - received only vegetable protein (VP) for 89 days; 2 - received animal and vegetable protein (AVP); and 3 - received animal and vegetable protein with animal protein subsequently removed (AVPR). Groups 2 and 3 received diets with 30% bovine meat and bone meal (MBM) added to a vegetable diet (from days 16-89 in the AVP group and until day 49 in the AVPR group, when MBM was removed). The AVPR group showed 15N equilibrium 5 days after MBM removal (54th day). Conversely, 15N equilibrium in the AVP group occurred 22 days later (76th day). The half-life differed between these groups by 3.55 days. In the AVPR group, 15N elimination required 53 days, which was similar to this isotope's incorporation time. Turnover was determined based on natural 15N signatures. IRMS followed by turnover calculations was used to evaluate the time period for the incorporation and elimination of animal protein in sheep serum. The δ13C and δ15N values were used to track animal protein in the diet. This method is biologically and economically relevant for the veterinary field because it can track protein over time or make a point assessment of animal feed with high sensitivity and resolution, providing a low-cost analysis coupled with fast detection. Isotopic profiles could be measured throughout the experimental period, demonstrating the potential to use the method for traceability and certification assessments.

A comparative study of zinc protoporphyrin IX-forming properties of animal by-products as sources for improving the color of meat products.

The objective of this study was to obtain fundamental data for improving the color of meat products by using animal by-products. We investigated zinc protoporphyrin IX (ZnPP)-forming properties of various internal organs from pigs and chickens. ZnPP was formed in the liver, heart and kidney, whereas the porcine spleen and bile, which are involved in the metabolism of heme, did not have ZnPP-forming properties. The optimum pH values were different among the internal organs and the ZnPP-forming properties of porcine organs were better than those of chicken organs. The porcine liver showed the greatest ZnPP-forming properties among all of the internal organs investigated in this study. The optimum pH value for ZnPP formation in the liver was lower than that of skeletal muscle. Oxygen did not inhibit the formation of ZnPP in the liver, unlike in skeletal muscle. Animal by-products such as the liver have good ability for the formation of ZnPP and might be useful for improving the color of meat products.