Does having siblings really protect against childhood atopic diseases? A total population and within-family analysis.

The association between having older siblings and decreased risk for atopic symptoms is well-established. This has been interpreted as evidence for the microbiota hypothesis, i.e. that increased early-childhood microbial exposure caused by siblings protects from immune hypersensitivities. However, possible confounders of the association have received little attention. We used register data on Finnish cohorts born in 1995-2004 (N = 559,077) to assess medication purchases for atopic diseases: antihistamines, eczema medication, asthma medication and Epinephrine. We modelled the probability of atopic medication purchases at ages 0-15 by birth order controlling for important observed confounders and all unobserved genetic and environmental characteristics shared by siblings in a within-family fixed effects model. We further studied medication purchases among first-borns according to the age difference with younger siblings to assess whether having younger siblings in early childhood is beneficial. Having older siblings was associated with a lower probability of atopic medication purchases. Compared to first-borns, the probability was 10-20% lower among second-borns, 20-40% lower among third-borns, and 30-70% lower among subsequent children, depending on medication type. Confounding accounted for up to 75% of these differences, particularly for asthma and eczema medication, but significant differences by birth order remained across all medication types. Among first-borns, a smaller age difference with younger siblings was related to a lower likelihood of atopic medication use. Our results, based on designs that account for unobserved confounding, show that exposure to siblings in early childhood, protects from atopic diseases, and thus strongly support the microbiota hypothesis.

Does the Fraternal Birth Order Effect Influence Handedness?

The fraternal birth order effect (FBOE) is the phenomenon whereby the probability that a man has a same-sex sexual orientation in adulthood increases with each biological older brother. Several studies have found evidence that the FBOE is limited to right-handed men, and left-handed men do not show an FBOE. Recent debates about the appropriate methods for quantifying the FBOE center on distinguishing the FBOE from other effects, such as the female fecundity effect (FFE), whereby mothers more prone to bearing gay sons are also more fecund. The FBOE and FFE are confounded in that a real FFE will result in data consistent with the FBOE under some analyses. Here, we applied some recent proposed analytic methods for the FBOE to the property of handedness. A straightforward application of Khovanova's technique to the binary trait of handedness yielded support for a fraternal birth order effect consistent with the maternal immune hypothesis, in that the ratios of handedness differed between men with one older brother only, and men with one younger brother only, while no such effect was seen in women. This effect was not seen, however, when the confounding effects of parental age were controlled for. Models including factors to simultaneously test multiple posited effects find significant female fecundity effects, as well as paternal age and birth order effects on handedness in men, but no FBOE. The effects seen in women were different, with no fecundity or parental age effects, but birth order and sex of older siblings had effects. We conclude, based on this evidence, that many of the factors thought to contribute to sexual orientation in men may also have an influence on handedness, and further note that parental age is a potential confound which may be overlooked by some analyses of the FBOE.

Testing Fraternal Birth Order Effects and Antagonistic Effects for Homosexual Men: Power Comparison of Various Methods.

Research on the biological determinants of male homosexual preference has long realized that the older brother effect (FBOE, i.e., a higher fraternal birth rank of homosexuals) and the antagonist effect (AE, i.e., more fertile women have a higher chance of having a homosexual son) can both generate family data where homosexual men have more siblings and more older siblings than heterosexual men. Various statistical approaches were proposed in the recent literature to evaluate whether the action of FBOE or AE could be discriminated from empirical data, by controlling for the other effect. Here, we used simulated data to formally compare all the approaches that we could find in the relevant literature for their ability to reject the null hypothesis in the presence of a specified alternative hypothesis (tests based on regression, Bayesian modeling, or contingency tables). When testing for the FBOE, the relative performance of the different tests was different depending on the specific function generating the older brother effect. Even if no tests were found to always perform better than the others, some tests performed systematically poorly, and some tests displayed a systematic high rate of type-I error. For testing the AE, the relative performance of the tests was generally not changed across all parameter values assayed, providing a clear ranking of the various proposed approaches. Pros and cons for each candidate test are discussed, taking into consideration power and the rate of type-I error but also practicability, the possibility to control for confounding variables, and to consider alternative hypotheses.

Birth Order and Family Size of UK Biobank Subjects Identified as Asexual, Bisexual, Heterosexual, or Homosexual According to Self-Reported Sexual Histories.

This study used a recently developed statistical technique to investigate the relations between various elements of a subject's family background and the odds of that subject reporting a sexual history indicative of a minority sexual orientation. The subjects were 78,983 men and 92,150 women who completed relevant questionnaire items in the UK Biobank, a large-scale biomedical database of volunteers aged 40-69 years. The men were divided into three sexual minority groups-homosexual, bisexual, and asexual-and a comparison group of heterosexual men. The same was done for the women. The analytic procedure consisted of logistic regressions specifically designed to disentangle the effects of birth order and family size. The results showed that older brothers increased the odds of homosexuality in both men and women, and that older sisters increased the odds in men. In contrast, neither older brothers or older sisters affected the odds of bisexuality or asexuality in men or in women. These results suggest that birth order effects may be specific to homosexuality and not common to all minority orientations. The only family size finding was the negative association between family size and the odds of asexuality in both men and women. The outcomes of this study indicate that the maternal immune hypothesis, which was advanced to explain the relation between older brothers and homosexuality in later-born males, might have to be abandoned or else expanded to explain the findings concerning females. A few such modifications are considered.

Examining the Fraternal Birth Order Effect and Sexual Orientation: Insights from an East European Population.

The development of human sexual orientation remains a complex and multifaceted subject. It is often studied but its origins continue to elude us. In this preregistered study, our primary objective was to demonstrate the fraternal birth order effect (FBOE), which assumes a higher prevalence of older brothers in gay men than in their straight counterparts and which has also been recently recorded in lesbian women. Our second aim was to explore any potential impact of the FBOE on anal-erotic role orientation (AERO), both in gay and straight men. Our study sample included 693 gay men, 843 straight men, 265 lesbian women, and 331 straight women from Czechia and Slovakia. Employing a conventionally parameterized logistic regression model, we substantiated the FBOE among both gay men (OR = 1.35 for maternal older brothers) and lesbian women (OR = 1.71). These outcomes were confirmed by a more nuanced parameterization recently proposed by Blanchard (2022). Nonmaternal older brothers did not exhibit a significant influence on their younger brothers' sexual orientation. Contrary to some earlier reports, however, our data did not establish the FBOE as exclusive to gay men with the receptive AERO. Furthermore, our observations indicated a lower offspring count for mothers of gay men compared to mothers of straight men. Emphasizing the positive FBOE outcomes, we acknowledge the need for caution regarding the various options that can be used to estimate the familial influences on sexual orientation.

Birth order moderates the association between adverse childhood experiences and externalizing behavior symptoms in adolescence.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with externalizing behaviors. Whereas some ACEs affect individual children (i.e., child-specific; e.g., failing a grade), others affect the family unit (i.e., family-wide; e.g., parent losing a job); effects of ACEs on externalizing behavior may manifest differently across groupings of ACEs. Moreover, birth order may modify the association between child-specific and family-wide ACEs and externalizing behavior due to differences in the experience of being a younger versus older sibling. This study examined the externalizing behavior of siblings in relation to their experiences of child-specific and family-wide ACEs to test the hypothesis that younger siblings are at greater risk for developing externalizing symptoms following familial ACE exposure. Participants were 61 sibling pairs (younger sibling Mage = 11.37 years, 44.1% male; older sibling Mage = 13.1 years, 52.5% male) recruited from six schools in the northeastern United States. Parents rated each child's externalizing behaviors (e.g., bullying, meanness) and retrospectively reported on each child's experience of 34 ACEs; two raters categorized ACEs as child-specific (n = 10) or family-wide (n = 24). Multilevel modeling revealed that both child-specific and family-wide ACEs were associated with increased externalizing behaviors. Birth order moderated the effect of family-wide (but not child-specific) ACEs on externalizing behaviors, independent of sex and age. Externalizing behavior was higher for younger siblings as compared with older siblings, particularly when a high number of ACEs (6+) were reported. This research should prompt future exploration of mechanistic theories of the impact of family-wide and child-specific ACEs and the role of birth order.

Association between high-risk fertility behaviour and anaemia among urban Indian women (15-49 years).

BACKGROUND: Women in their reproductive age have tremendous health implications that affect their health and well-being. Anaemia is an indicator of inadequate dietary intake and poor health. Maternal malnutrition significantly impacts maternal and child health outcomes, increasing the mother's risk of dying during delivery. High-risk fertility behaviour is a barrier to reducing mother and child mortality. This study aims to examine the level of high-risk fertility behaviour and anaemia among ever-married urban Indian women and also examine the linkages between the both. METHODS: Based on the National Family Health Survey's fifth round of data, the study analyzed 44,225 samples of ever-married urban women. Univariate and bivariate analysis and binary logistic regression have been used for the analysis. RESULTS: Findings suggested that more than half (55%) of the urban women were anaemic, and about one-fourth (24%) of women had any high-risk fertility behaviour. Furthermore, the results suggest that 20% of women were more vulnerable to anaemia due to high-risk fertility behaviour. For the specific category, 19% and 28% of women were more likely to be anaemic due to single and multiple high-risk fertility. However, after controlling for sociodemographic factors, the findings showed a statistically significant link between high-risk fertility behaviour and anaemia. As a result, 16% of the women were more likely to be anaemic due to high-risk fertility behaviour, and 16% and 24% were more likely to be anaemic due to single and multiple high-risk fertility behaviour, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The findings exposed that maternal high-risk fertility behaviour is a significant factor in raising the chance of anaemia in ever-married urban women of reproductive age in forms of the short birth interval, advanced maternal age, and advanced maternal age & higher order. Policy and choice-based family planning techniques should be employed to minimize the high-risk fertility behaviour among Indian urban women. This might aid in the reduction of the malnutrition status of their children.

Factors affecting birth weight and stillbirth in sows housed in a tropical environment.

This study analysed data from a commercial swine herd in Thailand equipped with a free-farrowing housing system, comprising 17,196 piglets from 1318 litters, to explore the impact of sow and litter characteristics on the piglet birth weight and the incidence of stillbirth. The piglets were classified into four groups based on the total number of piglets born per litter (TB): ≤9 (n = 1434), 10-12 (n = 3232), 13-15 (n = 6537) and ≥16 (n = 5993). Sows were classified into four groups based on parity number: 1, 2-4, 5-7 and ≥8. The piglets were categorized into quartiles based on their birth order ranking: Q1 (n = 4786), Q2 (n = 4143), Q3 (n = 3808) and Q4 (n = 4456). Piglet birth weight was individually measured before colostrum ingestion. On average, TB, the number of live-born piglets and the incidence of stillbirth were 13.1 ± 3.7, 11.5 ± 3.8 and 6.3%, respectively. Among these litters, 26.6% had TB numbers ≥16. The average piglet birth weight was 1.37 ± 0.36 kg, with 18.3% of piglets weighing ≤1.0 kg at birth. Piglet birth weight was influenced by birth order ranking, as Q4 piglets were found to be heavier than piglets born in Q1-Q3 (p < .001). Moreover, the percentage of piglets with a birth weight of ≤1.0 kg increased from 5.9% in litters with TB of ≤9-25.3% in litters with TB of ≥16 (p < .001). Additionally, primiparous sows had lower piglet birth weights compared to sows with parity numbers 2-4, 5-7 and ≥8 (p < .001). Piglets born in the fourth quartile (Q4) had a higher risk of stillbirth compared to those born in the first (Q1), second (Q2) and third (Q3) quartiles (12.5% vs. 2.2%, 4.1% and 6.6%, respectively, p < .001). The incidence of stillbirth in litters with TB ≥16 was also higher than that in litters with TB ≤9 and 10-12 (p < .05). Furthermore, sows with parity numbers ≥8 had a higher incidence of stillbirth (9.7%) compared to primiparous sows (4.0%, p < .001), sows with 2-4 parity (5.2%, p < .001) and sows with 5-7 parity (7.6%, p = .003). In summary, a high incidence of stillbirth was found in piglets born in the last quartile of litters, in litters with >16 piglets and for sows with parity numbers ≥8. Piglets born in the last quartile of litters were heavier than those born in the first to third quartiles.

Born to move? Birth order and emigration.

This paper studies the interrelation between birth order and emigration adopting a family fixed-effects approach. We use register data on all persons in full-siblings groups born 1970-2002 in the entire Finnish-born population, and observe their first move abroad since age 18 in the period 1987-2020. The total number of siblings is 1,352,908, the total number of sibling groups 549,842, and the total number of first moves abroad 31,192. By comparing siblings in the same family, we effectively adjust for all time-invariant confounding from unobserved or unmeasured time-invariant variables. Emigration is found to be positively associated with birth order. The hazard of emigration for second-born siblings is 1.05 that of first borns, that of third borns 1.07, and that of fourth borns 1.11. The pattern is particularly marked for emigration to countries where there is free mobility, and the association is similar for both genders. Potential explanations to the birth order pattern may be variation in personality traits, risk-taking behaviours and aspirations between siblings, or differential allocation of resources and opportunities within families. The results highlight the importance of considering birth order within the context of family dynamics and individual mobility patterns, and they need to be extended to broader settings.

Impact of birth order on risk-taking: Evidence from China.

Evidence about impact of birth order on risk-taking is mostly from the Western cultural contexts, and the findings are contradictory. Scant attention has been devoted to the impact of birth order on risk-taking in East Asian societies influenced by Confucian culture. In this study, we investigated how birth order impacts adult risk-taking using a representative Chinese sample (N = 12,756). The results revealed that the effect of birth order on Chinese risk-taking did not exhibit a linear trend, either when the birth order was coded using the original birth rank or when coded as firstborns, middleborns and lastborns. However, this study found that laterborns, as a whole, were more likely to take risks than firstborns. In addition, there was a quadratic trend inherent in the birth order effect on risk-taking, showing that middleborns were more likely to take risks than firstborns or lastborns. Furthermore, we found that the birth order effects on risk-taking were not affected by individuals' age, birth spacing and family size. Additional analyses also demonstrated the robustness of these results. Our findings established a small but meaningful association between birth order and risk-taking in a Confucian-influenced society.

Association between birth characteristics and incidence of pituitary adenoma and craniopharyngioma: a registry-based study in California, 2001-2015.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the association between birth characteristics, including parental sociodemographic characteristics, and early-onset pituitary adenoma (PA) and craniopharyngioma. METHODS: Leveraging the population-based California Linkage Study of Early-onset Cancers, we identified the birth characteristics of incident cases with PA (n = 1,749) or craniopharyngioma (n = 227) who were born from 1978 to 2015 and diagnosed 1988-2015, as well as controls in a 50:1 ratio matched on birth year. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) estimates were computed using unconditional multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Males had a lower risk of PA than females (OR = 0.37, 95%CI: 0.34-0.41), and Black (OR = 1.55, 95%CI: 1.30-1.84) or Hispanic (OR = 1.53, 95%CI: 1.34-1.74) individuals had a higher risk compared to non-Hispanic Whites. Older maternal age was positively associated with PA (OR = 1.09, 95%CI: 1.04-1.15 per 5 years, p < 0.01), as was higher maternal education (OR = 1.12, 95%CI: 1.04-1.20 per year, p < 0.01). There were no statistically significant associations between birthweight (OR = 1.04, 95%CI: 0.99-1.09 per 500 g, p = 0.12), birth plurality, or birth order and PA. When stratified by race and ethnicity, the significant association with maternal education was identified only for non-Hispanic White individuals. On multivariable logistic regression, no statistically significant associations were identified between birth characteristics and incidence of craniopharyngioma, except that risk was higher among Hispanic (OR = 1.45, 95%CI: 1.01-2.08) compared to non-Hispanic White individuals. CONCLUSION: In this large, population-based study, female sex, older maternal age, higher maternal education, and Hispanic ethnicity and Black race compared to non-Hispanic White race, were associated with an increased risk of PA in children and young adults.

Position in the laying order has sex-specific consequences for reproductive success in adult black-headed gulls.

Mothers who produce multiple offspring within one reproductive attempt often allocate resources differentially; some maternally derived substances are preferentially allocated to last-produced offspring and others to first-produced offspring. The combined effect of these different allocation regimes on the overall fitness of offspring produced early or late in the sequence is not well understood, partly because production order is often coupled with birth order, making it difficult-to-separate effects of pre-natal maternal allocation from those of post-natal social environments. In addition, very little is known about the influence of laying order on fitness in later life. In this study, we used a semi-natural captive colony of black-headed gulls to test whether an offspring's position in the laying order affected its early-life survival and later-life reproductive success, independent of its hatching order. Later-laid eggs were less likely to hatch, but among those that did, survival to adulthood was greater than that of first-laid eggs. In adulthood, the laying order of females did not affect their likelihood of breeding in the colony, but male offspring hatched from last-laid eggs were significantly less likely to gain a breeding position than earlier-laid males. In contrast, later-laid female parents hatched lower proportions of their clutches than first-laid females, but hatching success was unrelated to the laying order of male parents. Our results indicate that gull mothers induce complex and sex-specific effects on both the early survival of their offspring and on long-term reproductive success through laying order effects among eggs of the same breeding attempt.

Gender differences in vision health-seeking behavior and vision health outcomes among rural Chinese schoolchildren by birth order and family size.

BACKGROUND: The gender gap remains a major impediment in the path toward equality, and it is especially wide in low-income countries. Gender differences in health-seeking behaviors may be a factor. Family size and childbirth order are two critical factors affecting family resource allocation. This study examines gender differences in healthcare-seeking behaviors among children with visual impairment in rural China across different family structures (birth order and family size). METHODS: We draw on a dataset containing 19,934 observations constructed by combining data from 252 different school-level surveys spanning two provinces. The surveys were all conducted in 2012 using uniform survey instruments and data collection protocols in randomly selected schools across western provinces in rural China. The sample children range in grades from 4 to 5. Our analysis compares rural girls with rural boys regarding vision health outcome and behavior (vision examination and correction). RESULTS: The findings revealed that girls have worse vision than boys. Regarding vision health behaviors, girls have a lower overall vision examination rate than boys. There is no gender difference when the sample student is the only child or the youngest child in the family, but there is still a gender difference when the sample student is the oldest child in the family or the middle child in the birth order. When it comes to vision correction behavior, boys are more likely to own eyeglasses than girls are for groups of students with mild visual impairment, even when the sample student is the only child in the family. However, when the sample student has another brother or sister (the sample student is the youngest, the oldest child in the family, or the middle child in the birth order), the gender difference disappears. CONCLUSIONS: Gender differences in vision health outcomes are correlated with gender differences in vision health-seeking behaviors among rural children. Depending on the birth order and family size, gender disparities in visual health practices vary. In the future, consideration should be given to providing medical subsidies to reduce the cost of vision health behaviors and to provide information interventions to change gender inequality in households and promote equality in children's vision health behaviors. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was approved by the Stanford University Institutional Review Board (Protocol No. ISRCTN03252665). Permission was received from local Boards of Education in each region and the principals of all schools. The principles of the Declaration of Helsinki were followed throughout. Written informed consent was obtained from at least one parent for all child participants.

Number of Siblings and Social Capital Among Parents Rearing Schoolchildren: Results From the A-CHILD Study.

BACKGROUND: Having siblings may foster sociality; however, little is known about whether sibling number determines social capital, the resources obtained through social networks. We examined the association between sibling number and social capital among Japanese parents rearing schoolchildren. METHODS: We used cross-sectional data from the 2018 and 2019 Adachi Child Health Impact of Living Difficulty (A-CHILD) study, targeting all primary and junior high school students and their parents in Adachi, Tokyo, Japan (n = 8,082). Individual-level social capital was evaluated by assessing caregivers' social cohesion, social support, and group affiliation. All analyses were adjusted for age and sex. RESULTS: An inverse U-shaped association was found between sibling number and social capital. Adults who grew up with one or two, but not three or more siblings had greater social support (coefficient = 0.23; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.06-0.40 and coefficient = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.29-0.64, respectively) than those who grew up as an only child, after covariate adjustment. Adults who grew up with two or three, but not one or four or more siblings had greater group affiliation (coefficient = 0.09; 95% CI, 0.03-0.16 and coefficient = 0.09; 95% CI, 0.01-0.18, respectively) than those who grew up as an only child, after covariate adjustment. Sibling number was not associated with social cohesion. CONCLUSION: Growing up with one to three siblings was associated with higher social capital in adulthood than being an only child. Having siblings may provide an opportunity to foster social capital.

Is only-child status associated with a higher blood pressure in adolescence? An observational study.

Growing up with siblings may affect quality of life as well as hemodynamic parameters including blood pressure. Using weighted data from the nationwide and representative German KiGGs study, we assessed the relationship between only-child status, birth order, and arterial blood pressure in a cohort of 7311 adolescents aged between 11 and 17 years. Our data showed that only-children had the highest mean arterial blood pressure (87.3 ± 8.4 mmHg) as compared to first-born (86.3 ± 8.0), middle-born (86.4 ± 8.7), and youngest-born siblings (86.6 ± 8.2; p = 0.012). The two groups of only-children and first-borns differed significantly with respect to their age- and sex-specific, z-scored data for systolic (p = 0.047), diastolic (p = 0.012), and mean arterial blood pressure (p = 0.005). Linear regression models with blood pressure recordings as dependent variable adjusted to age, migration background, and age- and sex-specific z-scores of body-mass index confirmed that only-child status was an independent predictor of a higher diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.037). A similar result was observed for mean arterial blood pressure (p = 0.033), whereas systolic blood pressure was not associated with only-children status (p = 0.258).   Conclusion: In summary, we found a significant and positive relationship between only-child status and blood pressure, with the highest recordings in only-children and the lowest in first-borns. Models adjusted for relevant clinical confounders demonstrated slightly higher blood pressure in only-children compared to first-borns, who are both in an alpha birth order. Although these blood pressure differences were statistically significant, they have limited, if any, clinical meaning in this age group. What is Known: • In children and adults, blood pressure is significantly higher in only-children compared to children with siblings. However, it is unclear whether there are also similar blood pressure differences in adolescents and between only-children and first-borns. What is New: • Among adolescents in the alpha birth order, growing up as an only-child is associated with significantly higher mean blood pressure than among first-borns living with younger siblings.

The number of erupted teeth as a risk factor for dental caries in eighteen-month-old children: a cross­sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Dental caries is one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide, affecting lifelong as well as children. Therefore, it is important to clarify factors related to early childhood caries (ECC) in a younger population in terms of caries prevention. However, the prevalence of ECC is low in developed countries in the twenty-first century and a large-scale survey is needed to clarify the risk factors. Furthermore, earlier tooth eruption is not taken into consideration in most studies of ECC, even though it may be a factor of ECC. The present study investigated the prevalence and risk factors of dental caries in children aged 18 months in a core city of Japan. METHODS: Findings from a total of 7351 children aged 18 months were analyzed. Anthropometric measurements of height and weight, as well as an oral examination and a microbiological caries-risk test, were performed. Additionally, a structured interview sheet was provided to the parents or guardians. Findings of dental caries at 18 months of age were evaluated using a logistic regression model. RESULTS: Of the enrolled children, 1.2% had experienced dental caries. Multivariable logistic regression analysis results indicated a significant association with dental caries at 18 months of age for the following factors: second child (OR = 1.78; 95% CI:1.08-2.93, P < 0.05), third and later child (OR = 2.08; 95% CI:1.12-3.89, P < 0.05), 12 or fewer erupted teeth (OR = 0.47; 95% CI:0.24-0.96, P < 0.05), 17 or more erupted teeth (OR = 4.37; 95% CI:1.63-11.7, P < 0.01), Cariostat score (+ + +) (OR = 3.99; 95% CI:1.29-12.31, P < 0.05), daily eating before bed (OR = 2.62; 95% CI: 1.55-4.45, P < 0.001), three or more snacks per day (OR = 2.03; 95% CI:1.15-3.58, P < 0.05), and breastfeeding (OR = 3.30; 95% CI:2.00-5.44, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the number of erupted teeth, as well as birth order, eating habits, and breastfeeding, are significant factors in dental caries occurrence at 18 months of age.

Effectiveness of Psycho-Religious Sexuality Education upon Anger and Depression of Iranian Female Adolescents: The Relationship of Quality Family Relationships and Birth Order.

Sexually active adolescents tend to have a wider range of psychosocial problems, including depression, anger, poor academic achievement, low self-esteem, and substance use. Developing a high-quality and curriculum-based comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) program is of great importance for adolescents following Iranian culture. Due to the lack of such an educational program, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of psycho-religious CSE upon anger and depression of Iranian female adolescents, as well as the relationship of quality family relationships and birth order. The research design is quasi-experimental with pre-test and post-test with experimental and control groups. The statistical population of this study comprised all Iranian female adolescents aged 15 to 18 years in Mashhad who participated in this workshop voluntarily. For data collection, the Child and Adolescent Depression Inventory and Spielberger's State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) were used. SPSS 21 software and analysis of variance (ANOVA) and covariance (ANCOVA) were used for data analysis. The results showed that there was a significant difference in the mean difference between depression and anger in the control and experimental groups (p-Value < 0.05). The results also showed a significant relationship between birth order and the quality of family relationships on depression and anger. Psycho-religious-based SE can reduce depression and anger in female students. These findings can be used in planning educational interventions with a psycho-religious-based approach to reducing anger, depressive symptoms and dangerous sexual behaviors among adolescents.

New Data on Birth Order in Homosexual Men and Women and a Reply to Vilsmeier et al. (2021a, 2021b).

The fraternal birth order effect (FBOE) is the repeated finding that older brothers increase the odds of homosexuality in later-born males. It has been our working assumption, based on the majority of previous studies, that a similar FBOE does not occur in females. In an elaborate quantitative review posted last year to a preprint server, Vilsmeier et al. (2021a) concluded that there is no valid evidence for an FBOE in men or women. Ablaza et al. (2022) subsequently published a study of population-level data from the Netherlands with conclusions completely opposite to those of Vilsmeier et al., namely, that there is robust evidence of an FBOE in both men and women. The present research was initially undertaken to refute the assertion of Vilsmeier et al. that there is no proof of an FBOE in men and to investigate how they obtained such a discrepant conclusion. We found evidence that the discrepancy may relate to Vilsmeier et al.'s use of the large and demonstrably unreliable sample published by Frisch and Hviid (2006). After the publication by Ablaza et al., we expanded our article to address their finding of an FBOE in women. We argue that our preferred explanation of the FBOE in men-that it reflects the progressive immunization of some mothers to Y-linked antigen by each succeeding male fetus and the concomitantly increasing effects of anti-male antibody on sexual differentiation in the brain in each succeeding male fetus-could plausibly be extended to female homosexuality.

No effect of birth order on adult risk taking.

Does birth order shape people's propensity to take risks? Evidence is mixed. We used a three-pronged approach to investigate birth-order effects on risk taking. First, we examined the propensity to take risks as measured by a self-report questionnaire administered in the German Socio-Economic Panel, one of the largest and most comprehensive household surveys. Second, we drew on data from the Basel-Berlin Risk Study, one of the most exhaustive attempts to measure risk preference. This study administered 39 risk-taking measures, including a set of incentivized behavioral tasks. Finally, we considered the possibility that birth-order differences in risk taking are not reflected in survey responses and laboratory studies. We thus examined another source of behavioral data: the risky life decision to become an explorer or a revolutionary. Findings from these three qualitatively different sources of data and analytic methods point unanimously in the same direction: We found no birth-order effects on risk taking.

Evidence for distinct biodevelopmental influences on male sexual orientation.

Several biological mechanisms have been proposed to influence male sexual orientation, but the extent to which these mechanisms cooccur is unclear. Putative markers of biological processes are often used to evaluate the biological basis of male sexual orientation, including fraternal birth order, handedness, and familiality of same-sex sexual orientation; these biomarkers are proxies for immunological, endocrine, and genetic mechanisms. Here, we used latent profile analysis (LPA) to assess whether these biomarkers cluster within the same individuals or are present in different subgroups of nonheterosexual men. LPA defined four profiles of men based on these biomarkers: 1) A subgroup who did not have these biomarkers, 2) fraternal birth order, 3) handedness, and 4) familiality. While the majority of both heterosexual and nonheterosexual men were grouped in the profile that did not have any biomarker, the three profiles associated with a biomarker were composed primarily of nonheterosexual men. We then evaluated whether these subgroups differed on measures of gender nonconformity and personality that reliably show male sexual orientation differences. The subgroup without biomarkers was the most gender-conforming whereas the fraternal birth order subgroup was the most female-typical and agreeable, compared with the other profiles. Together, these findings suggest there are multiple distinct biodevelopmental pathways influencing same-sex sexual orientation in men.