Proposals for new spray drift exposure values in orchards and vineyards for residents and bystanders.

In the EU, predicted exposure to spray drift for residents and bystanders from applications in orchards and vineyards is based on data from one study published in 1987, where one downwind distance (8 m) was considered. CropLife Europe conducted sixteen new GLP compliant studies in 4 EU countries, 8 in orchards, 8 in vineyards with early and late season applications, using adult and child mannequins located 5, 10 and 15 m downwind from the last row to measure dermal and inhalation exposures. The resulting "Bystander Resident Orchard Vineyard (BROV)" database comprises 288 observations and offers a more comprehensive option for exposure prediction. There were differences between adult and child, crop type, leaf cover and distance from the sprayer, supporting the derivation of mean, median, 75th and 95th percentile exposures for each subset. Exposures did not generally correlate with wind speed, wind direction, sprayer type, spray quality, spray concentration or amount applied. Dermal and inhalation exposure were lower in vineyards than in orchards and further analysis is required to understand why.

Individual and Contextual Correlates of Latent Bystander Profiles toward Racist Hate Speech: A Multilevel Person-centered Approach.

Prior research into bystander responses to hate speech has utilized variable-centered analyses - such approaches risk simplifying the complex nature of bystander behaviors. Hence, the present study used a person-centered analysis to investigate latent hate speech bystander profiles. In addition, individual and classroom-level correlates associated with the various profiles were studied. The sample included 3225 students in grades 7-9 (51.7% self-identified as female; 37.2% with immigrant background) from 215 classrooms in Germany and Switzerland. The latent profile analysis revealed that four distinct profiles could be distinguished: Passive Bystanders (34.2%), Defenders (47.3%), Revengers (9.8%), and Contributors (8.6%). Multilevel logistic regression models showed common and distinct correlates. For example, students who believed that certain social groups are superior were more likely to be Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders, students who felt more connected with teachers were more likely to be Defenders, and students who were more open to diversity were less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. Students were less likely Defenders and more likely Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders in classrooms with high rates of hate speech perpetration. Further, in classrooms with high hate speech intervention, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In classrooms with stronger cohesion, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In conclusion, the findings add to our understanding of bystander profiles concerning racist hate speech and the relevance of individual and classroom-level factors in explaining various profiles of bystander behavior.

Assessing the risk of induction of skin sensitization to plant protection products: A quantitative approach.

Exposure to skin sensitizers is common and regulated in many industry sectors. For cosmetics, a risk-based approach has been implemented, focused on preventing the induction of sensitization. First, a No Expected Sensitization Induction Level (NESIL) is derived, then modified by Sensitization Assessment Factors (SAFs) to derive an Acceptable Exposure Level (AEL). The AEL is used in risk assessment, being compared with an estimated exposure dose, specific to the exposure scenario. Since in Europe there is increased concern regarding exposure towards potentially sensitizing pesticides via spray drift, we explore how existing practice can be modified to allow Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) of pesticides for bystanders and residents. NESIL derivation by the Local Lymph Node Assay (LLNA), the globally required in vivo assay for this endpoint, is reviewed alongside consideration of appropriate SAFs. Using a case study, the principle that the NESIL in µg/cm2 can be derived by multiplying LLNA EC3% figure by a factor of 250 is adopted. The NESIL is then reduced by an overall SAF of 25 to establish an exposure level below which there is minimal bystander and resident risk. Whilst this paper focuses on European risk assessment and management, the approach is generic and universally applicable.

Imagined and extended contact experiences and adolescent bystanders' behavioral intentions in homophobic bullying episodes.

Bystanders' helping interventions in bias-based bullying are rare, although they have the potential to intervene on behalf of the victim and quickly stop the aggression. Two studies tested, experimentally, the impact of adolescents' imagined (Study 1, N = 113, Mage = 16.17) and extended contact experiences (Study 2, N = 174, Mage = 15.79) on assertive bystanders' behavioral intentions in the context of homophobic bullying, an under-researched but highly detrimental behavior that emerges mainly during early adolescence. Potential mediators (empathic concern, social contagion concerns, and masculinity/femininity threat) were also examined. Results showed that female younger participants revealed more behavioral intentions to help victims of homophobic bullying when asked to imagine an interaction with an outgroup member (Study 1). Younger participants revealed less masculinity/femininity threat in the positive extended contact condition, and female participants revealed less empathic concern in the negative extended contact condition (Study 2). Overall, these findings identify specific conditions (e.g., younger females) where indirect contact interventions (i.e., extended and imagined) are likely to have a stronger impact. Age and sex differences were found to illustrate how adolescents vary in their behavioral intentions, empathic concern, and threat; and also highlight the need to further examine age and sex differences regarding responses to homophobic bullying episodes.

Comparison of two infant cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques explained by phone in a non-health professionals' population: Two-thumbs encircling hand technique vs. two-fingers technique, a randomised crossover study in a simulation environment.

BACKGROUND: Paediatric out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is the reason for an emergency call in approximately 8/100,000 person-years. Improvement of OHCA resuscitation needs a quality chain of survival and a rapid start of resuscitation. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of two resuscitation techniques provided on a mannequin, the two-fingers technique (TFT) and the two-thumbs encircling hand technique (TTHT), explained by a trained emergency call responder on the phone in a population of non-health professionals. METHODS: We conducted a randomised crossover study in the simulation lab of a University Hospital. The participants included in the study were non-health professional volunteers of legal age. The participants were assigned (1:1 ratio) to two groups: group A: TFT then TTHT, group B: TTHT then TFT. Scenario and techniques were discovered during the evaluation. RESULTS: Thirty-five volunteers were randomised before the sessions and 33 ultimately came to the simulation lab. We found a better median QCPR global score during TTHT sessions than during TFT sessions (74 vs. 59, P = 0.046). Linear mixed models showed that the TTHT method was the only variable associated with a better QCPR global score [model 1: ß = 14.3; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.4-26.2; model 2: ß = 14.5; 95% CI, 2.5-26.6]. CONCLUSION: Our study showed the superiority of TTHT for infant CPR performed by non-health professionals when an emergency call responder advised them over the phone. It seemed to be the best technique for a solo rescuer regardless of previous training.

Research bystanders, justice, and the state: Reframing the debate on third-party protections in health research.

Research participants are afforded protections to ensure their rights and welfare are not unduly jeopardized by research activities. Yet people who do not meet the criteria for research participant status may likewise be impacted by research activities, and ethicists argue that protections should be afforded these "research bystanders." The standard rationale for extending protections to research bystanders contends that they are sufficiently like research participants that the ethical principles governing health research ought to extend to them. In this article we argue that this analogical reasoning is mistaken. Salient moral differences mean that research ethics frameworks are not fit for purpose. We defend the research bystander category by articulating a novel foundation for this new class of stakeholder. Focusing on bystanders directly impacted by publicly funded health research, we argue that bystanders are sometimes owed protections-but neither because of their similarity to research participants nor because research ethics principles should extend to them. Instead, we reframe the issue as a question of justice. Building on the work of Douglas MacKay, we argue that bystanders to publicly funded health research are owed protections as citizens of liberal states to whom the state owes duties of justice. The state has duties to protect the interests of citizens and to conduct health research. When the means by which the state fulfils the latter duty comes into conflict with the means by which it fulfils the former, the state must ensure that those impacted, including research bystanders, are afforded protections.

At the core of cyberaggression: A group-based explanation.

In this study, prototypicality of the aggressor was tested as a group-level factor predicting social media users' active participation in cyberaggression. Participants were exposed to a fictitious conversation, in which either a prototypical versus non-prototypical user posted an aggressive comment as a reply to a provocative comment. In line with self-categorization theory, we hypothesized that bystander participants would post an aggressive comment and rate the aggression as acceptable to a greater extent in the prototypical than in the non-prototypical condition. Furthermore, we predicted that perceived normativity of aggression would mediate the effect of prototypicality. Results supported these predictions and showed that prototypical members affect the extent to which collective aggressive behaviors in online interactions are approved and enacted. These findings highlight the importance of group-level factors in the study of cyberaggression and provide important information for understanding the psychological underpinnings of collective forms of online aggression.

Factors influencing the behavior of bystanders to workplace bullying in healthcare-A qualitative descriptive interview study.

Workplace bullying is a severe problem that affects individuals, organizations, and society. Although there is a growing research interest in bystanders of workplace bullying, the rationale underlying bystanders' behavior in healthcare settings requires further investigation. The aim of the current study is to explore factors that influence the behavior of bystanders to workplace bullying in the healthcare sector. Qualitative semistructured interviews were conducted with 32 staff members in the healthcare sector in Sweden. Data were collected between March 2019 and September 2020 and were analyzed with thematic analysis. The participants experienced that bystanders of bullying, both colleagues and managers, were in many situations acting in a passive way. Organizational factors such as dysfunctional organizational culture and deficiencies in management affected how actively the bystanders could intervene. Additionally, a fear of negative consequences, lack of awareness of what was going on, bullying behavior being excused, and the bystander not being a member of the dominant group were social factors contributing to bystanders' passive behavior. For bystander intervention to be successful, the organization must consider bullying as a serious issue, take action, and show support for both the target and the bystander.

Professional and Organizational Leadership Role in Ethics Management: Avoiding Reliance on Ethical Codification and Nurturing Ethical Culture.

The engineering profession has experienced some ethical cases that were rarely reported, scrutinized, or discussed because: they did not necessarily represent violations of existing codes even if they breached ethical principles; those within the organization were not prepared to take steps to address the issues or impose sanction; an/or some of the personnel associated with these cases resorted to silence to avoid being labeled as trouble-makers in their organizations and, perhaps, more broadly, in society. The goal of this paper is to heighten managerial awareness of ethical issues, interrelated ethical lapses, and appropriate responsive actions within professional engineering communities. As such, the authors reviewed recent well-known professional and organizational ethical cases including impact of leadership role and existing standards, and critically analyzed interrelated literature. The paper's case studies exemplify that because ethical issues are complex, intricate, and nuanced; bylaws are insufficient for establishing the inclusive culture for handling potential ethical situations. In fact, through what is known as the codification of ethics, it is possible that someone's conduct can totally fulfill all professional responsibilities but still be unethical. As such, ethical leadership is needed to provide the means for establishing appropriate norms so as to set the proper structures for addressing the diverse ethical matters. Perceptions about the responses of leaders to potential ethical lapses are a critical factor in formulating, changing, and maintaining ethical values at the individual and organizational levels. A leader's passive attitude toward ethical issues can be the signal for the ignored lapses to become the norm at not only the organizational level but also the society. Guided by the new Code of Ethics by the American Society of Civil Engineers, this paper aims to trigger the proper ethical behavior and expectations for the welfare of the engineering profession both in the present and future.

School Climate and Bullying Bystander Responses in Middle and High School.

Bullying bystanders' reactions are important for either stopping or perpetuating bullying behaviors. Given school-based bullying programs' focus on bystanders, understanding the associations between school-level factors and individual bystander responses can improve intervention efficacy. Data from 64,670 adolescents were used to examine bullying bystander responses as a function of 13 school-climate dimensions within 3 main factors (Engagement, Environment, Safety) and individual-level factors (e.g., race/ethnicity, perceptions of student-teacher connectedness). Multi-level models showed schools with better Engagement and Safety had higher odds of defender behaviors, a better Environment was associated with lower odds of passive and assisting behaviors. Differences also varied by individual-level factors. For example, an aggressive climate was associated with passive behaviors more strongly in boys and high schoolers. Further, higher perceived parent-teacher and student-teacher connectedness were associated with positive bystander behaviors, and this was stronger for Black and Latinx youth, highlighting the importance of improving relationships as a crucial starting point.

Using photovoice to understand and amplify youth voices to prevent sexual and relationship violence.

AIMS: Efforts to improve prevention of sexual and relationship violence (SRV) among adolescents call for more centering of youth voices, experiences, and skills to design prevention programs that incorporate youth engagement rather than those that are designed by adults for youth. Amplifying the voices of historically marginalized youth are especially needed. Photovoice (PV) is a participatory action method that can empower youth and generate prevention knowledge. METHODS: The current project used PV to engage youth in late middle and early high school to discuss how they could work to prevent SRV in their community. A convenience sample of nine youth (predominately Native American) participated over seven sessions. RESULTS: A key theme they generated is that SRV prevention needs to be viewed as relational. Participants described the complexity of prevention, including how youth need social support to thrive and prevent SRV and that asking for help can be challenging. Results also highlighted that youth can provide help and support, but it is not always welcome in addition to underscoring that youth are resilient and can be prevention leaders. CONCLUSION: Innovations in SRV prevention, especially for older adolescents, should work to engage youth as prevention partners. Participatory research methods like photovoice can be an important part of that process.

Availability and use of Automated External Defibrillators in Karachi, Pakistan: A cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the availability and use of automated external defibrillators in various public and private establishments, and to assess knowledge, attitude and practices related to its use. METHODS: The telephone-based survey was conducted from March to August 2019 in Karachi after approval from the ethics review committee of the Aga Khan University, Karachi, and comprised public and private establishments identified through purposive sampling based on the standard requirements for automated external defibrillators installation. Data was collected using a predesigned questionnaire which was pilot-tested for reliability and validity. Data was analysed using SPSS 23. RESULTS: Of the 53 establishments, 32(60.4%) were private and 21(39.6%) were public. Overall, 9(17%) establishments were aware of automated external defibrillators and 1(1.9%) had an automated external defibrillator on the premises. Also, 25(47.2%) establishments believed that having an automated external defibrillator on the premises would be useful, while 25(47.2%) were undecided. Besides, 22(41.5%) establishments said they would consider installing an automated external defibrillator on the premises, while 24(45.3%) were undecided. Finally, 37(69.8%) establishments expressed a positive desire to get trained in giving basic life support. Conclusion: There was a need for a city-wide automated external defibrillator placement project for a reduction in mortality due to out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

[Effects of automated external defibrillators on hands-off intervals in lay rescuers]. / Einfluss verschiedener automatisierter externer Defibrillatoren auf die Hands-off-Intervalle von Ersthelfern.

Background: Survival chances after out-of-hospital cardiac arrests caused by hyperdynamic electric cardiac rhythms can be significantly improved by early defibrillation with automated external defibrillators (AEDs). As postulated in international guidelines, the resulting hands-off intervals should not exceed 10 s. Objectives: We investigated delay in onset of chest compressions and the length of hands-off intervals during defibrillation associated with the application of AEDs. Materials and methods: In a prospective, randomized, single-blinded observational study, the resuscitation efforts by first year medical students were analyzed in different emergency scenarios on manikins. Delay in onset of chest compressions and the length of hands-off intervals between voice prompts from four conventional devices were compared during shockable and nonshockable rhythms. Satisfaction with the device, difficulties with the application, and suggested improvements were assessed by questionnaire. Results: In a total of 70 applications, the start with thoracic compressions was delayed by a mean of 115 s. On average, the first shock was administered after 125 s in shockable heart rhythms. Perishock pauses of less than 10 s were achieved with none of the tested devices. Hands-off intervals during defibrillation differed significantly between the devices (p < 0.001). Improvements were suggested regarding marking, voice prompts, and electrodes. Conclusions: Perishock pause of less than 10 s was not achieved with any of the tested devices. Shortened and more precise voice prompts as well as more clearly arranged labeling and layout of pads are needed to simplify application, reduce delayed onset of chest compressions and shorten hands-off intervals.

Why IRBs should protect bystanders in human research.

Many types of human research activities present risks and burdens to third parties (e.g., bystanders). Few human protection policies directly address the protection of research bystanders, though some address it in passing. In what follows, I re-iterate reasons why bystanders are entitled to protections. I also argue that Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) are in the best position to signal to researchers and sponsors that bystanders should be protected in research. In some cases, IRB review would consist of evaluating bystander protection strategies directly; in other cases, this might entail merely certifying that another institutions, like a drug regulator, has taken adequate measures to protect the welfare of research bystanders.

Bystanders and ethical review of research: Proceed with caution.

Scientists seeking to conduct research with human subjects must first submit their proposals to research ethics committees (Institutional Review Boards [IRBs], in the United States). Some of these studies pose risks to "bystanders," i.e., people who may be affected by the research but who are not enrolled as study subjects. Should IRBs expand their scope to include oversight over possible harms to bystanders as well as research subjects? This paper presents arguments against this step. Prior review of research with human subjects, despite its evident burden on the research enterprise, is a necessary caution, because the tension between the objectives of humane treatment of research subjects and sound scientific design and procedure has in the past led to serious abuses. This rationale is inapplicable in the case of bystanders. Moreover, in view of the many and varied effects of both research practices and scientific advances on the broader public over time, those who may be considered to be "bystanders" may potentially expand without limit; requiring IRBs to anticipate these distant and long-term effects as part of prior ethical review could greatly increase its burden and its deterrent effect on research. While conducting research without concern for serious potential harm to bystanders may be irresponsible and unethical, expanding the scope of prior review by IRBs to include risks to bystanders is not required by the principles governing human subjects research, and the costs and burdens of this expansion may outweigh any expected gains.

The role of community engagement in addressing bystander risks in research: The case of a Zika virus controlled human infection study.

There is limited guidance on how to assess the ethical acceptability of research risks that extend beyond research participants to third parties (or "research bystanders"). Community or stakeholder engagement has been proposed as one way to address potential harms to community members, including bystanders. Despite widespread agreement on the importance of community engagement in biomedical research, this umbrella term includes many different goals and approaches, agreement on which is ethically required or recommended for a particular context. We analyse the case of a potential Zika virus human challenge trial to assess whether and how community engagement can help promote the ethical acceptability of research posing risks to bystanders. We conclude that, in addition to having intrinsic value, community engagement can improve the identification of bystander risks, effective approaches to minimizing them, and transparency about bystander risks for host communities.

Risky research and bystander consent.

There is no quick and easy answer to the question whether research activities that endanger bystanders without their consent ever thereby violate those bystanders' rights. We cannot dismiss the idea that bystanders possess strong rights against researchers simply on the grounds that they are, after all, merely bystanders. Indeed, it is easy to imagine scenarios in which researchers would be morally required to gain the informed consent of bystanders whom they risk harming. Whether bystander consent is required in any particular real-world case will depend, in part, upon exactly how the research activity endangers them.

Bystanders, risks, and consent.

This paper considers the moral status of bystanders affected by medical research trials. Recent proposals advocate a very low threshold of permissible risk imposition upon bystanders that is insensitive to the prospective benefits of the trial, in part because we typically lack bystanders' consent. I argue that the correct threshold of permissible risk will be sensitive to the prospective gains of the trial. I further argue that one does not always need a person's consent to expose her to significant risks of even serious harm for the sake of others. That we typically need the consent of participants is explained by the fact that trials risk harmfully using participants, which is very hard to justify without consent. Bystanders, in contrast, are harmed as a side-effect, which is easier to justify. I then consider whether the degree of risk that a trial may impose on a bystander is sensitive to whether she is a prospective beneficiary of that trial.

Using, risking, and consent: Why risking harm to bystanders is morally different from risking harm to research subjects.

Subjects in studies on humans are used as a means of conducting the research and achieving whatever good would justify putting them at risk. Accordingly, consent must normally be obtained before subjects are exposed to any substantial risks to their welfare. Bystanders are also often put at risk, but they are not used as a means. Accordingly-or so I argue-consent is more often unnecessary before bystanders are exposed to similar substantial risks to their welfare.

Compensation and reparations for victims and bystanders of the U.S. Public Health Service research studies in Tuskegee and Guatemala: Who do we owe what?

Using the infamous research studies in Tuskegee and Guatemala, the article examines the difference between victims and bystanders. The victims can include families, sexual partners, and children not just the participants. There are also the bystanders in the populations who are affected, even vaguely, decades after the initial studies took place. Differing reparations for victims and bystanders through lawsuits and historical acknowledgments has to be part of broader discussions of historical justice, and the weighing of the impact of racism and imperial research endeavors.