Emotion recognition and regulation in males: Role of sex and stress steroids.

Understanding emotions in males is crucial given their higher susceptibility to substance use, interpersonal violence, and suicide compared to females. Steroid hormones are assumed to be critical biological factors that affect and modulate emotion-related behaviors, together with psychological and social factors. This review explores whether males' abilities to recognize emotions of others and regulate their own emotions are associated with testosterone, cortisol, and their interaction. Higher levels of testosterone were associated with improved recognition and heightened sensitivity to threatening faces. In contrast, higher cortisol levels positively impacted emotion regulation ability. Indirect evidence from neuroimaging research suggested a link between higher testosterone levels and difficulties in cognitive emotion regulation. However, this notion must be investigated in future studies using different emotion regulation strategies and considering social status. The present review contributes to the understanding of how testosterone and cortisol affect psychological well-being and emotional behavior in males.

Boosting interpersonal emotion regulation through facial imitation: functional neuroimaging foundations.

Empathic function, which is primarily manifested by facial imitation, is believed to play a pivotal role in interpersonal emotion regulation for mood reinstatement. To explore this association and its neural substrates, we performed a questionnaire survey (study l) to identify the relationship between empathy and interpersonal emotion regulation; and a task-mode fMRI study (study 2) to explore how facial imitation, as a fundamental component of empathic processes, promotes the interpersonal emotion regulation effect. Study 1 showed that affective empathy was positively correlated with interpersonal emotion regulation. Study 2 showed smaller negative emotions in facial imitation interpersonal emotion regulation (subjects imitated experimenter's smile while followed the interpersonal emotion regulation guidance) than in normal interpersonal emotion regulation (subjects followed the interpersonal emotion regulation guidance) and Watch conditions. Mirror neural system (e.g. inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobe) and empathy network exhibited greater activations in facial imitation interpersonal emotion regulation compared with normal interpersonal emotion regulation condition. Moreover, facial imitation interpersonal emotion regulation compared with normal interpersonal emotion regulation exhibited increased functional coupling from mirror neural system to empathic and affective networks during interpersonal emotion regulation. Furthermore, the connectivity of the right orbital inferior frontal gyrus-rolandic operculum lobe mediated the association between the accuracy of facial imitation and the interpersonal emotion regulation effect. These results show that the interpersonal emotion regulation effect can be enhanced by the target's facial imitation through increased functional coupling from mirror neural system to empathic and affective neural networks.

Induced emotion counter-regulation affects attentional inhibition of emotional information: ERP evidence from a randomized manipulation approach.

Automatic emotion counter-regulation refers to an unintentional attentional shift away from the current emotional state and toward information of the opposite valence. It is a useful emotion regulation skill that prevents the escalation of current emotional state. However, the cognitive mechanisms of emotion counter-regulation are not fully understood. Using a randomization approach, this study investigated how automatic emotion counter-regulation impacted attentional inhibition of emotional stimuli, an important aspect of emotion processing closely associated with emotion regulation and mental health. Forty-six university students were randomly assigned to an emotion counter-regulation group and a control group. The former group watched an anger-inducing video to evoke automatic emotion counter-regulation of anger, while the latter group watched an emotionally neutral video. Next, both groups completed a negative priming task of facial expressions with EEG recorded. In the emotion counter-regulation group, we observed an enhanced attentional inhibition of the angry, but not happy, faces, as indicated by a prolonger response time, a larger N2, and a smaller P3 in response to angry versus happy stimuli. These patterns were not observed in the control group, supporting the role of elicited emotion counter-regulation of anger in causing these modulation patterns in responses.

The VLPFC-Engaged Voluntary Emotion Regulation: Combined TMS-fMRI Evidence for the Neural Circuit of Cognitive Reappraisal.

A clear understanding of the neural circuit underlying emotion regulation (ER) is important for both basic and translational research. However, a lack of evidence based on combined neuroimaging and neuromodulation techniques calls into question (1) whether the change of prefrontal-subcortical activity intrinsically and causally contributes to the ER effect; and (2) whether the prefrontal control system directly modulates the subcortical affective system. Accordingly, we combined fMRI recordings with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to map the causal connections between the PFC and subcortical affective structures (amygdala and insula). A total of 117 human adult participants (57 males and 60 females) were included in the study. The results revealed that TMS-induced ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC) facilitation led to enhanced activity in the VLPFC and ventromedial PFC (VMPFC) as well as attenuated activity in the amygdala and insula during reappraisal but not during nonreappraisal (i.e., baseline). Moreover, the activated VLPFC intensified the prefrontal-subcortical couplings via the VMPFC during reappraisal only. This study provides combined TMS-fMRI evidence that downregulating negative emotion involves the prefrontal control system suppressing the subcortical affective system, with the VMPFC serving as a crucial hub within the VLPFC-subcortical network, suggesting an indirect pathway model of the ER circuit. Our findings outline potential protocols for improving ER ability by intensifying the VLPFC-VMPFC coupling in patients with mood and anxiety disorders.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Using fMRI to examine the TMS effect, we uncovered that the opposite neural changes in prefrontal (enhanced) and subcortical (attenuated) regions are not a byproduct of emotion regulation (ER); instead, this prefrontal-subcortical activity per se causally contributes to the ER effect. Furthermore, using TMS to amplify the neural changes within the ER circuit, the "bridge" role of the VMPFC is highlighted under the reappraisal versus nonreappraisal contrast. This "perturb-and-measure" approach overcomes the correlational nature of fMRI data, helping us to identify brain regions that causally support reappraisal (the VLPFC and VMPFC) and those that are modulated by reappraisal (the amygdala and insula). The uncovered ER circuit is important for understanding the neural systems underlying reappraisal and valuable for translational research.

Cognitive Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression Evoke Distinct Neural Connections during Interpersonal Emotion Regulation.

Interpersonal emotion regulation is the dynamic process where the regulator aims to change the target's emotional state, which is presumed to engage three neural systems: cognitive control (i.e., dorsal and ventral lateral PFC, etc.), empathy/social cognition (i.e., dorsal premotor regions, temporal-parietal junction, etc.), and affective response (i.e., insula, amygdala, etc.). This study aimed to identify the underlying neural correlate (especially the interpersonal one), of interpersonal emotion regulation based on two typical strategies (cognitive appraisal, expressive suppression). Thirty-four female dyads (friends) were randomly assigned into two strategy groups, with one assigned as the target and the other as the regulator to downregulate the target's negative emotions using two strategies. A functional near-infrared spectroscopy system was used to simultaneously measure participants' neural activity. Results showed that these two strategies could successfully downregulate the targets' negative emotions. Both strategies evoked intrapersonal and interpersonal neural couplings between the cognitive control, social cognition, and mirror neuron systems (e.g., PFC, temporal-parietal junction, premotor cortex, etc.), whereas cognitive reappraisal (vs expressive suppression) evoked a broader pattern. Further, cognitive reappraisal involved increased interpersonal brain synchronization between the prefrontal and temporal areas at the sharing stage, whereas expressive suppression evoked increased interpersonal brain synchronization associated with the PFC at the regulation stage. These findings indicate that intrapersonal and interpersonal neural couplings associated with regions within the abovementioned systems, possibly involving mental processes, such as cognitive control, mentalizing, and observing, underlie interpersonal emotion regulation based on cognitive reappraisal or expressive suppression.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT As significant as intrapersonal emotion regulation, interpersonal emotion regulation subserves parent-child, couple, and leader-follower relationships. Despite enormous growth in research on intrapersonal emotion regulation, the field lacks insight into the neural correlates underpinning interpersonal emotion regulation. This study aimed to probe the underlying neural correlates of interpersonal emotion regulation using a multibrain neuroimaging (i.e., hyperscanning) based on functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Results showed that both cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression strategies successfully downregulated the target's negative emotions. More importantly, they evoked intrapersonal and interpersonal neural couplings associated with regions within the cognitive control, social cognition, and mirror neuron systems, possibly involving mental processes, such as cognitive control, mentalizing, and observing. These findings deepen our understanding of the neural correlates underpinning interpersonal emotion regulation.

Resting-state effective connectivity is systematically linked to reappraisal success of high- and low-intensity negative emotions.

Emotion regulation is a process by which individuals modulate their emotional responses to cope with different environmental demands, for example, by reappraising the emotional situation. Here, we tested whether effective connectivity of a reappraisal-related neural network at rest is predictive of successfully regulating high- and low-intensity negative emotions in an emotion-regulation task. Task-based and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data of 28 participants were collected using ultra-high magnetic field strength at 7 Tesla during three scanning sessions. We used spectral dynamic causal modeling (spDCM) on the rs-fMRI data within brain regions modulated by emotion intensity. We found common connectivity patterns for both high- and low-intensity stimuli. Distinctive effective connectivity patterns in relation to low-intensity stimuli were found from frontal regions connecting to temporal regions. Reappraisal success for high-intensity stimuli was predicted by additional connections within the vlPFC and from temporal to frontal regions. Connectivity patterns at rest predicting reappraisal success were generally more pronounced for low-intensity stimuli, suggesting a greater role of stereotyped patterns, potentially reflecting preparedness, when reappraisal was relatively easy to implement. The opposite was true for high-intensity stimuli, which might require a more flexible recruitment of resources beyond what is reflected in resting state connectivity patterns. Resting-state effective connectivity emerged as a robust predictor for successful reappraisal, revealing both shared and distinct network dynamics for high- and low-intensity stimuli. These patterns signify specific preparatory states associated with heightened vigilance, attention, self-awareness, and goal-directed cognitive processing, particularly during reappraisal for mitigating the emotional impact of external stimuli. Our findings hold potential implications for understanding psychopathological alterations in brain connectivity related to affective disorders.

Aging modulates frontal lobes involvement in emotion regulation processing.

Emotion regulation (ER) is the process by which individuals can modulate the intensity of their emotional experience and it plays a crucial role in daily life. So far, behavioral analyses seem to suggest that ER ability remains stable throughout the lifespan. However, imaging studies evaluating the neural correlates of ER performance during the aging process have shown mixed results. In this study, we used the "Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience cohort sample" to investigate: (1) ER behavioral performance and (2) the differential association between brain measures (based on both structural and functional connectivity data) and ER performance, in a group of younger/middle-aged participants (N = 159; age range: 18y < x < 58y) relative to a group of older healthy subjects (N = 136; age range: 58y < =x < 89y). Whereas we found no group-related differences either in ER behavioral data or the association between ER performance and structural data, we did observe that ER performance was differentially correlated in our two study groups to functional connectivity measures in the fronto-insular-temporal network, which has been shown to be involved in emotional processing. Group-related differences were specifically localized in a cluster of voxels within the anterior cingulate areas which revealed a reverse pattern between our study groups: in younger/middle-aged participants better ER performance was associated with increase connectivity, whereas among older participants better ER performance was related to reduced connectivity. Based on our results, we suggest that a de-differentiation mechanism, known to affect the frontal lobes brain activity and connectivity in older subjects, might explain our findings.

A core component of psychological therapy causes adaptive changes in computational learning mechanisms.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive distancing is an emotion regulation strategy commonly used in psychological treatment of various mental health disorders, but its therapeutic mechanisms are unknown. METHODS: 935 participants completed an online reinforcement learning task involving choices between pairs of symbols with differing reward contingencies. Half (49.1%) of the sample was randomised to a cognitive self-distancing intervention and were trained to regulate or 'take a step back' from their emotional response to feedback throughout. Established computational (Q-learning) models were then fit to individuals' choices to derive reinforcement learning parameters capturing clarity of choice values (inverse temperature) and their sensitivity to positive and negative feedback (learning rates). RESULTS: Cognitive distancing improved task performance, including when participants were later tested on novel combinations of symbols without feedback. Group differences in computational model-derived parameters revealed that cognitive distancing resulted in clearer representations of option values (estimated 0.17 higher inverse temperatures). Simultaneously, distancing caused increased sensitivity to negative feedback (estimated 19% higher loss learning rates). Exploratory analyses suggested this resulted from an evolving shift in strategy by distanced participants: initially, choices were more determined by expected value differences between symbols, but as the task progressed, they became more sensitive to negative feedback, with evidence for a difference strongest by the end of training. CONCLUSIONS: Adaptive effects on the computations that underlie learning from reward and loss may explain the therapeutic benefits of cognitive distancing. Over time and with practice, cognitive distancing may improve symptoms of mental health disorders by promoting more effective engagement with negative information.

Changes in affective control covary with changes in mental health difficulties following affective control training (AffeCT) in adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Everyday affective fluctuations are more extreme and more frequent in adolescence compared to any other time in development. Successful regulation of these affective experiences is important for good mental health and has been proposed to depend on affective control. The present study examined whether improving affective control through a computerised affective control training app (AffeCT) would benefit adolescent mental health. METHODS: One-hundred and ninety-nine participants (11-19 years) were assigned to complete 2 weeks of AffeCT or placebo training on an app. Affective control (i.e. affective inhibition, affective updating and affective shifting), mental health and emotion regulation were assessed at pre- and post-training. Mental health and emotion regulation were assessed again one month and one year later. RESULTS: Compared with the placebo group, the AffeCT group showed significantly greater improvements in affective control on the trained measure. AffeCT did not, relative to placebo, lead to better performance on untrained measures of affective control. Pre- to post-training change in affective control covaried with pre- to post-training change in mental health problems in the AffeCT but not the placebo group. These mental health benefits of AffeCT were only observed immediately following training and did not extend to 1 month or year post-training. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the study provides preliminary evidence that AffeCT may confer short-term preventative benefits for adolescent mental health.

Adaptive-to-maladaptive gradient of emotion regulation tendencies are embedded in the functional-structural hybrid connectome.

BACKGROUND: Emotion regulation tendencies are well-known transdiagnostic markers of psychopathology, but their neurobiological foundations have mostly been examined within the theoretical framework of cortical-subcortical interactions. METHODS: We explored the connectome-wide neural correlates of emotion regulation tendencies using functional and diffusion magnetic resonance images of healthy young adults (N = 99; age 20-30; 28 females). We first tested the importance of considering both the functional and structural connectome through intersubject representational similarity analyses. Then, we employed a canonical correlation analysis between the functional-structural hybrid connectome and 23 emotion regulation strategies. Lastly, we sought to externally validate the results on a transdiagnostic adolescent sample (N = 93; age 11-19; 34 females). RESULTS: First, interindividual similarity of emotion regulation profiles was significantly correlated with interindividual similarity of the functional-structural hybrid connectome, more so than either the functional or structural connectome. Canonical correlation analysis revealed that an adaptive-to-maladaptive gradient of emotion regulation tendencies mapped onto a specific configuration of covariance within the functional-structural hybrid connectome, which primarily involved functional connections in the motor network and the visual networks as well as structural connections in the default mode network and the subcortical-cerebellar network. In the transdiagnostic adolescent dataset, stronger functional signatures of the found network were associated with higher general positive affect through more frequent use of adaptive coping strategies. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our study illustrates a gradient of emotion regulation tendencies that is best captured when simultaneously considering the functional and structural connections across the whole brain.

Higher emotion regulation flexibility predicts more stable negative emotions and faster affective recovery in early psychosis: an experience sampling study.

BACKGROUND: While evidence shows that people with early psychosis are flexible in using different emotion regulation (ER) strategies to manage the varying contextual demands, no studies have examined the effectiveness of such regulatory flexibility in this population. We addressed this issue by investigating whether and how ER flexibility relate to different dynamic aspects (variability, instability, inertia, and recovery) of negative affect (NA) in a combined early psychosis sample, consisting of both individuals at high clinical risk for psychosis and those diagnosed with first-episode psychosis. METHODS: Participants were 148 individuals from the INTERACT project, a multi-center randomized controlled trial on the efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in early psychosis. We utilized data from the baseline assessment, during which all participants completed six days of experience sampling assessment of momentary NA, as well as end-of-day assessments of ER strategy use. RESULTS: Multilevel models of within-person associations showed that greater ER flexibility was associated with more stable NA, and quicker recovery of NA from stressors during the day. Linear regression analyses of between-person associations showed that people who had more variable and unstable NA reported greater ER flexibility generally. No evidence was found for associations with NA inertia. CONCLUSIONS: The current study identified unique within-person and between-person links between ER flexibility and dynamics of NA in early psychosis. These findings further provide evidence for ER flexibility in early psychosis, emphasizing the adaptive nature of regulatory flexibility in relation to reduced instability in NA and faster recovery from NA in everyday life.

Screen time, brain network development and socio-emotional competence in childhood: moderation of associations by parent-child reading.

BACKGROUND: Screen time in infancy is linked to changes in social-emotional development but the pathway underlying this association remains unknown. We aim to provide mechanistic insights into this association using brain network topology and to examine the potential role of parent-child reading in mitigating the effects of screen time. METHODS: We examined the association of screen time on brain network topology using linear regression analysis and tested if the network topology mediated the association between screen time and later socio-emotional competence. Lastly, we tested if parent-child reading time was a moderator of the link between screen time and brain network topology. RESULTS: Infant screen time was significantly associated with the emotion processing-cognitive control network integration (p = 0.005). This network integration also significantly mediated the association between screen time and both measures of socio-emotional competence (BRIEF-2 Emotion Regulation Index, p = 0.04; SEARS total score, p = 0.04). Parent-child reading time significantly moderated the association between screen time and emotion processing-cognitive control network integration (ß = -0.640, p = 0.005). CONCLUSION: Our study identified emotion processing-cognitive control network integration as a plausible biological pathway linking screen time in infancy and later socio-emotional competence. We also provided novel evidence for the role of parent-child reading in moderating the association between screen time and topological brain restructuring in early childhood.

Microstructural abnormalities of white matter in the cingulum bundle of adolescents with major depression and non-suicidal self-injury.

BACKGROUND: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is prevalent in major depressive disorder (MDD) during adolescence, but the underlying neural mechanisms are unclear. This study aimed to investigate microstructural abnormalities in the cingulum bundle associated with NSSI and its clinical characteristics. METHODS: 130 individuals completed the study, including 35 healthy controls, 47 MDD patients with NSSI, and 48 MDD patients without NSSI. We used tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) with a region of interest (ROI) analysis to compare the fractional anisotropy (FA) of the cingulum bundle across the three groups. receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) analysis was employed to evaluate the ability of the difficulties with emotion regulation (DERS) score and mean FA of the cingulum to differentiate between the groups. RESULTS: MDD patients with NSSI showed reduced cingulum integrity in the left dorsal cingulum compared to MDD patients without NSSI and healthy controls. The severity of NSSI was negatively associated with cingulum integrity (r = -0.344, p = 0.005). Combining cingulum integrity and DERS scores allowed for successful differentiation between MDD patients with and without NSSI, achieving a sensitivity of 70% and specificity of 83%. CONCLUSIONS: Our study highlights the role of the cingulum bundle in the development of NSSI in adolescents with MDD. The findings support a frontolimbic theory of emotion regulation and suggest that cingulum integrity and DERS scores may serve as potential early diagnostic tools for identifying MDD patients with NSSI.

Amygdala-related electrical fingerprint is modulated with neurofeedback training and correlates with deep-brain activation: proof-of-concept in borderline personality disorder.

BACKGROUND: The modulation of brain circuits of emotion is a promising pathway to treat borderline personality disorder (BPD). Precise and scalable approaches have yet to be established. Two studies investigating the amygdala-related electrical fingerprint (Amyg-EFP) in BPD are presented: one study addressing the deep-brain correlates of Amyg-EFP, and a second study investigating neurofeedback (NF) as a means to improve brain self-regulation. METHODS: Study 1 combined electroencephalography (EEG) and simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the replicability of Amyg-EFP-related brain activation found in the reference dataset (N = 24 healthy subjects, 8 female; re-analysis of published data) in the replication dataset (N = 16 female individuals with BPD). In the replication dataset, we additionally explored how the Amyg-EFP would map to neural circuits defined by the research domain criteria. Study 2 investigated a 10-session Amyg-EFP NF training in parallel to a 12-weeks residential dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) program. Fifteen patients with BPD completed the training, N = 15 matched patients served as DBT-only controls. RESULTS: Study 1 replicated previous findings and showed significant amygdala blood oxygenation level dependent activation in a whole-brain regression analysis with the Amyg-EFP. Neurocircuitry activation (negative affect, salience, and cognitive control) was correlated with the Amyg-EFP signal. Study 2 showed Amyg-EFP modulation with NF training, but patients received reversed feedback for technical reasons, which limited interpretation of results. CONCLUSIONS: Recorded via scalp EEG, the Amyg-EFP picks up brain activation of high relevance for emotion. Administering Amyg-EFP NF in addition to standardized BPD treatment was shown to be feasible. Clinical utility remains to be investigated.

The influence of acute stress exposure on cognitive reappraisal: a psychophysiological study.

Successful and efficient emotion regulation (ER) is a key mechanism for mental health. However, acute stress may impact the ability to cognitively regulate negative emotions due to its immediate effects on executive functioning. Based on previous studies, we expected that the time at which ER is tested after a stressor might have a decisive influence, with impairments in ER being more pronounced immediately after stress as compared to a later post-stress phase. To investigate such a time-dependent effect of stress on ER, we investigated 50 healthy adults (26 female) who were exposed to either the Trier Social Stress Test (n = 25) or a control condition (n = 25). Afterwards subjects conducted a cognitive ER task during which they were instructed to either regulate (cognitive reappraisal) or passively view neutral and negative visual stimuli. The ER task was divided into an early (0-20 minutes) and a late post-stress phase (20-40 minutes). Salivary cortisol and α-amylase were assessed as markers of the neuroendocrine stress response. Self-reported emotional state, the mean activity of the late positive potential measured via electroencephalogram (EEG), and corrugator electromyographic activity (EMG) were used as indices of ER. While the groups did not differ in the early post-stress phase, our results suggest a stress-related impairment in ER in the late post-stress phase. This effect was evident in all ER outcome variables (subjective rating, EEG, and EMG data). These results suggest a time-specific stress effect on cognitive reappraisal, which would have implications for reappraisal as a possible stress management technique.

Stable neural underpinnings of emotional cognition subgroups in patients newly diagnosed with bipolar disorder: A prospective fMRI study.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the neural underpinnings of emotional cognition subgroups in recently diagnosed patients with bipolar disorder (BD) and change over time over a 15-month follow-up period. METHODS: Patients and healthy controls (HC) underwent emotional and nonemotional cognitive assessments and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at the baseline (BD n = 87; HC n = 65) and at 15-month follow-up (BD n = 44; HC n = 38). Neural activity during emotion reactivity and regulation in response to aversive pictures was assessed during fMRI. Patients were clustered into subgroups based on their emotional cognition and, with HC, were compared longitudinally on cognition and neural activity during emotion reactivity and regulation. RESULTS: Patients were optimally clustered into two subgroups: Subgroup 1 (n = 40, 46%) was characterized by heightened emotional reactivity in negative social scenarios, which persisted over time, but were otherwise cognitively intact. This subgroup exhibited stable left amygdala hyper-activity over time during emotion reactivity compared to subgroup 2. Subgroup 2 (n = 47, 54%) was characterized by global emotional cognitive impairments, including stable difficulties with emotion regulation over time. During emotion regulation across both time points, this group exhibited hypo-activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Additionally, patients in subgroup 2 had poorer nonemotional cognition, had more psychiatric hospital admissions and history of psychotic episodes than those in subgroup 1. CONCLUSIONS: Broad impairments in emotional cognition in approximately half of BD patients and associated nonemotional cognitive deficits may originate from insufficient recruitment of prefrontal resources, contributing to poorer clinical outcomes.

Emotion regulation as central to psychopathology across childhood and adolescence: a commentary on Nobakht et al. (2023).

An important goal of clinical/developmental research is to identify factors contributing to the onset and maintenance of psychopathology - particularly factors that could be modified through intervention. Large-scale, multi-informant, longitudinal studies provide valuable opportunities for testing such etiological hypotheses, as illustrated by Nobakht et al.'s recent six-wave cohort study spanning ages 4-14. At a within-person level, emotion regulation (ER) deficits consistently predicted oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms (including both irritability and defiance), whereas victimization did not. These results comport with growing evidence highlighting ER's centrality to ODD and psychopathology more broadly. While the ER findings carry promising implications, caution is warranted in interpreting the results for victimization given that its association with psychopathology is well-documented. More research is needed to test precise questions about within- and between-person processes involving ER, victimization, and psychopathology across development. Pressing research questions include whether, how, and when youths' ER can be modified, and with what effects on clinical outcomes.

Research Review: Child emotion regulation mediates the association between family factors and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents - a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Parental influence on children's internalizing symptoms has been well established; however, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. One possible mechanism is child emotion regulation given evidence (a) of its associations with internalizing symptoms and (b) that the development of emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence is influenced by aspects of the family environment. This meta-analysis aimed to systematically investigate the mediating role of child emotion regulation in the relationship between various family factors and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents. METHODS: We searched Medline, Embase, PsychInfo, and Web of Science for English articles up until November 2022. We included studies that examined child emotion regulation as a mediator between a family factor and child/adolescent internalizing symptoms. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled indirect effects and total effects for nine family factors. Heterogeneity and mediation ratio were also calculated. RESULTS: Of 49 studies with 24,524 participants in this meta-analysis, family factors for which emotion regulation mediated the association with child/adolescent internalizing symptoms included: unsupportive emotion socialization, psychological control, secure attachment, aversiveness, family conflict, parent emotion regulation and parent psychopathology, but not supportive emotion socialization and behavioral control. CONCLUSIONS: Various family factors impact children's emotion regulation development, and in turn, contribute to the risk of internalizing symptoms in young people. Findings from this study highlight the need for interventions targeting modifiable parenting behaviors to promote healthy emotion regulation and better mental health in children and adolescents.

Changes in emotion regulation strategies during the pandemic: prospective pathways to adolescent depressive symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Emotion regulation (ER) is considered central in adolescent psychopathology, and ER strategies may change during challenging times, such as a global pandemic. Despite this, there remains a limited understanding of individual differences in ER mechanisms and their associations with psychopathology. This study examined whether and how cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, and self-compassion changed over COVID-19 and how these changes uniquely predicted adolescents' depressive symptoms. METHODS: A total of 2,411 adolescents (58.6% females; Mage = 18.51, SD = 0.80) completed the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire, the Self-compassion Scale, and the Symptom Checklist-90 before COVID-19 (in 2019) and during COVID-19 (in 2020). The predictive associations between each ER strategy and depressive symptoms were tested with latent change score models. RESULTS: Adolescents' use of expressive suppression and self-compassion strategies both increased during COVID-19. More increases in expressive suppression predicted more depressive symptoms, whereas more increases in self-compassion predicted fewer depressive symptoms. Although, on average, cognitive reappraisal did not change, it did show significant variations within the sample - increases (vs. decreases) in cognitive appraisal predicted fewer depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The study indicates how adolescents' ER strategies changed during the unprecedented global pandemic. It underscores protective roles of increased cognitive reappraisal and self-compassion, as well as the adverse consequence of heightened expressive suppression on adolescents' depressive symptoms. Findings offer insights for targeted interventions aimed at addressing specific ER strategies.

Development of symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder from preschool to adolescence: the role of bullying victimization and emotion regulation.

BACKGROUND: Childhood oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is associated with adverse outcomes which can continue to impair life well into adulthood. Identifying modifiable etiological factors of ODD is therefore essential. Although bullying victimization and poor emotion regulation are assumed to be risk factors for the development of ODD symptoms, little research has been conducted to test this possibility. METHODS: A sample (n = 1,042) from two birth cohorts of children in the city of Trondheim, Norway, was assessed biennially from age 4 to 14 years. Parents and children (from age 8) were assessed with clinical interviews to determine symptoms of ODD, children reported on their victimization from bullying, and teachers reported on children's emotion regulation. RESULTS: Oppositional defiant disorder symptoms increased from age 4 to 6, from age 8 to 10, and then started to wane as children entered adolescence. A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model revealed that increased emotion regulation predicted a reduced number of ODD symptoms across development (ß = -.15 to -.13, p < .001). This prediction was equally strong for the angry/irritable and argumentative/defiant dimensions of ODD. No longitudinal links were observed between bullying victimization and ODD symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Improving emotion regulation skills may protect against ODD symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence.