Associations of sleep quality and exercise frequency and the risk of coronary heart disease in Chinese urban elderly: a secondary analysis of cross-sectional data.

BACKGROUND: Sleep quality and exercise frequency are closely associated with coronary heart disease (CHD). Few studies focused on the joint effect of initiating sleep, sleep disorders, and exercise frequency on the risk of CHD in the elderly. We used a secondary data analysis based on Boshan Elderly cross-sectional study. We explored the sleep quality, exercise frequency, and their joint effects on the risk of CHD. METHODS: We collected 678 participants whose age ≥ 60 years old from Boshan District Hospital. We used the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index to evaluate the sleep quality and obtained physical examination information from the hospital. RESULTS: Compared with the non-CHD group, patients with CHD spent more time in initiating sleep (time ≥ 60 min, 34.59% vs. 22.93%, P = 0.025) and less time exercising (exercise frequency < 1 times/week, 23.90% vs. 17.15%, P = 0.024). In multiple logistic regression analysis, sleep latency ≥ 60 min was associated with CHD risk (adjusted OR = 1.83; 95% CI: 1.11, 2.99; P-trend = 0.008). The adjusted OR (95% CI) of CHD was 2.24 (1.16, 4.34) for sleep duration < 5 h versus 5-9 h. Compared with exercise frequency < 1 times/week, the adjusted OR for exercise frequency ≥ 1 times/week was 0.46 (95% CI: 0.26, 0.83; P = 0.010). In addition, the joint effects of long sleep latency (≥ 60 min) and sleep disorders were associated with CHD (adjusted OR = 3.36; 95% CI: 1.41, 8.02). The joint effect of exercise frequency ≥ 1 times/week and sleep onset latency within normal limits (< 30 min) was also associated with CHD, and the adjusted OR (95% CI) was 0.42 (0.21, 0.87). CONCLUSIONS: Long sleep latency, high frequency of initiating sleep difficulty, sleep disorders, and short sleep duration were positively associated with CHD. In addition, the joint effects of long sleep latency and sleep disorders were positively correlated with CHD incidence. However, the joint effects of exercise frequency ≥ 1 times/week and normal sleep onset latency were negatively associated CHD.

The relationship between past exercise behavior and future exercise adherence: A sequential mediation analysis.

The present study explored the mediation role of past exercise adherence, self-reported frequency and intentions in the association between past experience and future exercise adherence. In total, 431 exercisers (female = 216; male = 215) aged 18 and 64 years, engaged in fitness activities such as group fitness classes and resistance training, were included in the analysis. Serial mediation procedures were employed to examine the direct, indirect, and total indirect effects among variables. The predictor variable and all mediators displayed a positive and significant association with future six-month adherence. Past six-month exercise adherence displayed the most significant association with future six-month adherence. The sequential indirect path from exercise experience → past six-months adherence → self-reported frequency → intentions future six-months adherence displayed a positive and significant effect (ß = .19 [CI95% = .09, .31]), presenting a partial mediation effect. Past behaviour is the most significant predictor of future adherence, and thus interventions should be based on promoting consistent exercise frequency. Professionals working in the fitness centre context can identify possible dropouts based on their past behaviour and intentions to be physically active in the future.

Effect of aerobic exercise training frequency on arterial stiffness in middle-aged and elderly females.

[Purpose] This study aimed to determine the effects of aerobic exercise training frequency on arterial stiffness in postmenopausal females. [Participants and Methods] This study included 45 postmenopausal females randomly assigned to one of the following three groups: 1) low-frequency training group (aerobic exercise training twice per week); 2) high-frequency training group (aerobic exercise training four times per week); and 3) control group (no training). Each group was subjected to an 8-week intervention period. Both traditional and newer indexes were measured immediately before and after the 8-week intervention period. [Results] In the low-frequency training group, carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity and arterial velocity pulse index decreased post 8 weeks compared with those at baseline. In the high-frequency training group, carotid-femoral, brachial-ankle, and heart-brachial pulse wave velocities and arterial velocity pulse and arterial pressure-volume indexes decreased post 8 weeks compared to those at baseline. In the control group, no change in any indices post 8 weeks compared to those at baseline was observed. [Conclusion] Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity was lower after aerobic training than before training in both the exercise groups. Thus, aerobic exercise training might have a beneficial effect on aortic stiffness, regardless of the training frequency in this population.

Daily Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis Rates in Response to Low- and High-Frequency Resistance Exercise Training in Healthy, Young Men.

The impact of resistance exercise frequency on muscle protein synthesis rates remains unknown. The aim of this study was to compare daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates over a 7-day period of low-frequency (LF) versus high-frequency (HF) resistance exercise training. Nine young men (21 ± 2 years) completed a 7-day period of habitual physical activity (BASAL). This was followed by a 7-day exercise period of volume-matched, LF (10 × 10 repetitions at 70% one-repetition maximum, once per week) or HF (2 × 10 repetitions at ∼70% one-repetition maximum, five times per week) resistance exercise training. The participants had one leg randomly allocated to LF and the other to HF. Skeletal muscle biopsies and daily saliva samples were collected to determine myofibrillar protein synthesis rates using 2H2O, with intracellular signaling determined using Western blotting. The myofibrillar protein synthesis rates did not differ between the LF (1.46 ± 0.26%/day) and HF (1.48 ± 0.33%/day) conditions over the 7-day exercise training period (p > .05). There were no significant differences between the LF and HF conditions over the first 2 days (1.45 ± 0.41%/day vs. 1.25 ± 0.46%/day) or last 5 days (1.47 ± 0.30%/day vs. 1.50 ± 0.41%/day) of the exercise training period (p > .05). Daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates were not different from BASAL at any time point during LF or HF (p > .05). The phosphorylation status and total protein content of selected proteins implicated in skeletal muscle ribosomal biogenesis were not different between conditions (p > .05). Under the conditions of the present study, resistance exercise training frequency did not modulate daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates in young men.

How many times per week should a muscle be trained to maximize muscle hypertrophy? A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies examining the effects of resistance training frequency.

Training frequency is considered an important variable in the hypertrophic response to regimented resistance exercise. The purpose of this paper was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies designed to investigate the effects of weekly training frequency on hypertrophic adaptations. Following a systematic search of PubMed/MEDLINE, Scoups, and SPORTDiscus databases, a total of 25 studies were deemed to meet inclusion criteria. Results showed no significant difference between higher and lower frequency on a volume-equated basis. Moreover, no significant differences were seen between frequencies of training across all categories when taking into account direct measures of growth, in those considered resistance-trained, and when segmenting into training for the upper body and lower body. Meta-regression analysis of non-volume-equated studies showed a significant effect favoring higher frequencies, although the overall difference in magnitude of effect between frequencies of 1 and 3+ days per week was modest. In conclusion, there is strong evidence that resistance training frequency does not significantly or meaningfully impact muscle hypertrophy when volume is equated. Thus, for a given training volume, individuals can choose a weekly frequency per muscle groups based on personal preference.

Physical therapy intervention with a low frequency of exercise for a patient with a complicated form of hereditary spastic paraplegia: a case report.

[Purpose] Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive spasticity and weakness of the lower limbs. To date, the appropriate frequency and intensity of physical therapy for patients with HSP are not well-known. We created an original rehabilitation program for a patient with a complicated form of HSP, wherein the program required low-frequency involvement to adapt to the long-term insurance system in Japan. We wanted to find out whether this program could maintain the physical functions and activities of daily living (ADL) of the patient. [Participant and Methods] A 41-year-old male diagnosed with a complicated form of HSP with decreased visual acuity and ataxia of the trunk and upper limb underwent a specific rehabilitation program that included a squatting exercise, a kneeling position exercise, and a motion exercise of taking a bath. This intervention program lasted for 20 minutes per session, with a frequency of two days per week. The patient was in the program for 12 weeks. [Results] All outcome measures, including muscle strength (grip force and quadriceps) and Barthel index, remained unchanged at the end of the intervention program. [Conclusion] The original intervention program used in this study, which had a low frequency of exercise, was effective in preventing further regression of the lower limb function of the patient with a complicated form of HSP, and in preventing a decrease in the ability of the patient to perform ADL.

Exercise Frequency and Fracture Risk in Older Adults-How Often Is Enough?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Due to older people's low sports participation rates, exercise frequency may be the most critical component for designing exercise protocols that address fracture risk. The aims of the present article were to review and summarize the independent effect of exercise frequency (ExFreq) on the main determinants of fracture prevention, i.e., bone strength, fall frequency, and fall impact in older adults. RECENT FINDINGS: Evidence collected last year suggests that there is a critical dose of ExFreq that just affects bone (i.e., BMD). Corresponding data for fall-related fracture risk are still sparse and inconsistent, however. The minimum effective dose (MED) of ExFreq that just favorably affects BMD at the lumbar spine and femoral neck has been found to vary between 2.1 and 2.5 sessions/week. Although this MED cannot necessarily be generalized to other cohorts, we speculate that this "critical exercise frequency" might not significantly vary among adult cohorts.

How much exercise are older adults living in nursing homes doing in daily life? A cross-sectional study.

Information on the amount of exercise practised by nursing home (NH) residents is scarce. This study aimed at describing NH residents' participation in exercise classes, as well as to examine whether the presence of a professional exercise instructor in the facilities is associated with residents' exercise habits. The cross-sectional data of 5402 residents (median age = 88 years; mostly women (75.2%)) from 163 NHs in France were analysed. Adjusted logistic and linear regressions were performed to examine whether the presence of a professional exercise instructor in the NH was associated with exercise habits: exercise participation, frequency, duration, and levels. From the 5402 participants, 1914 were participating in exercise classes provided in the NH. Most of them had an exercise frequency of 1x/week or less. Median duration of exercise sessions was 45 min. Exercise levels were rated as: highly active (n = 487), intermediately active (n = 1096), and poorly active (n = 331). The presence of a professional exercise instructor working in the facility was significantly associated with exercise participation and with higher exercise frequencies and levels, and session duration. In conclusion, the presence of professional exercise instructors is associated with better exercise habits in NH residents. Improved exercise habits may potentially be translated into better health in this population.

Dose-response effect of exercise frequency on bone mineral density in post-menopausal, osteopenic women.

The purpose of this study was to determine the long-term dose-response relationship of exercise frequency on areal bone mineral density (aBMD) in early post-menopausal women with osteopenia. Based on the 12-year results of the consequently supervised exercise group (EG) of the Erlangen Fitness and Osteoporosis Prevention Study, we retrospectively structured two exercise groups according to the overall exercise frequency. Changes in aBMD at lumbar spine and proximal femur as assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry technique were compared between a low-frequency exercise group (LEF-EG, n = 16) with 1.5-<2 sessions/week and a high-frequency exercise group (HEF-EG, n = 25) with ≥ 2-3.5 sessions/week. Changes in aBMD at the lumbar spine and proximal femur were significantly more favorable in the HEF-EG compared with the LEF-EG; lumbar spine: (mean value ± standard deviation) 1.1 ± 4.7% vs -4.1 ± 3.0%; P = 0.001, ES: d' = 1.26; total hip: -4.4 ± 3.9% vs -6.7 ± 3.5%, P = 0.045, ES: d' = 0.70). BMD results of the LEF-EG did not significantly differ from the data of the non-training control group (lumbar spine: -4.4 ± 5.2%, total hip: -6.9 ± 5.0%). Although this result might not be generalizable across all exercise types and cohorts, it indicates that to impact bone, an overall exercise frequency of at least 2 sessions/week may be crucial, even if exercise is applied with high intensity/impact.

Physical Exercise Prevents the Cognitive Decline among Older Adults in Romania.

Cognitive decline is one of the most important challenges related to the aging process, due to its important impact on individuals. Several studies have reported that physical exercise with a specific intensity and frequency is beneficial for maintaining cognitive health in the ageing population. The present study investigated the impact of general physical exercise on cognitive health in the older population in Romania. The study involved 60 individuals (60% male, 40% female), with a mean age of 60.78 years (SD = 2.97). The Health Interview Survey and The Minnesota Heart Survey assessed exercise frequency and intensity, while the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) determined mild cognitive impairment (MCI) levels. The results of the statistical analysis showed that high-intensity physical exercise at a frequency of three to four times a week at the age of 40-50 years is recommended in order to significantly reduce cognitive decline. In addition, for the age of 60 years old, the results established that engaging in physical activities of a moderate intensity with a frequency of 2-3 times per month is sufficient to maintain healthy cognition. The findings suggest that exercise can serve as a behavioral intervention to mitigate cognitive dysfunction and complement past research on its cognitive health advantages.

Physical exercise frequency and cognition: a multicenter cross-sectional cohort study.

Background and aims: Dementia imposes a heavy burden on society and families, therefore, effective drug treatments, exploring and preventing factors associated with dementia, are paramount. To provide reference points for the best frequency of physical exercise (physical exercise), we investigated the association between frequency of PE and cognition in Chinese old adults. Methods: 16,181 Chinese participants aged 65 years or older were included in this study. Associations between PE and cognition were estimated multivariate logistic and linear regression analyses. Associations were further investigated across dementia subtypes (Alzheimer dementia, vascular dementia, and other types of dementia). Subgroup analyses were performed in different age groups, in populations with and without stroke, and those with and without hypertension. Results: PE associated with dementia after adjusting for full covariates (OR: 0.5414, 95% CI: 0.4536-0.6491, p < 0.001). Exercise performed at ≥3 times/week associated with lower risk of dementia (OR: 0.4794-0.6619, all p value <0.001). PE was associated with improved cognition (ß: 12851, p < 0.001), and any PE frequency contributed to cognitive improvement (p values for exercise performed ≥1 time/week were <0.001). Similar conclusions were identified when we repeated analyses in different dementia subtypes and age groups. Subgroup analyses suggested that the cognition of individuals without hypertension also benefitted from exercising 1-2 times/week (OR: 0.6168, 95% CI: 0.4379-0.8668, p = 0.005). Conclusion: The best exercise frequency is exercising ≥3 times/week for individuals from different dementia subtypes and age groups. While for those without hypertension, PE at 1-2 times /week is also beneficial.

Impact of cardiac rehabilitation exercise frequency on exercise capacity in patients with coronary artery disease: a retrospective study.

Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) significantly improves cardiovascular outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). International guidelines vary in the minimum recommended frequency of supervised exercise from 1 to 3 sessions per week. This is the first study in the Middle East and North African regions assessing the impact of 2 versus 3 days/week of supervised exercise on peak exercise capacity in patients with CAD. Single-center retrospective cohort study involving 362 patients enrolled in the only CR center in the State of Qatar. Only high-quality data was included by strict evaluation of compliance to the exercise intervention. Fifty patients who underwent a symptom-limited exercise test before and after CR were included (31 patients on 2 days/week, 19 on 3 days/week). No significant differences were observed in baseline characteristics between groups. Exercise intervention differed significantly between groups in exercise training frequency (2 days/week: 1.97 ± 0.2 vs. 3 days/week: 2.7 ± 0.3; p < 0.00). Peak exercise capacity as peak metabolic equivalents of task (MET) significantly increased in both groups (2 days/week: Pre 8.3 ± 2.4 vs. Post 9.4 ± 2.9, p-value 0.00; 3 days/week: Pre 7.4 ± 1.6 vs. Post 8.4 ± 2.0, p-value 0.00). No significant difference was observed between groups for change in Peak Exercise Capacity (2 days/week 1.1 ± 1.1 vs. 3 days/week 1.0 ± 0.9, p = 0.87). When the total number of exercise sessions is equal, supervised exercise frequencies of 2 and 3 days/week may significantly and equally improve peak exercise capacity in patients with CAD.

The Effect of Exercise Prescription on the Human Gut Microbiota and Comparison between Clinical and Apparently Healthy Populations: A Systematic Review.

This study systematically reviewed all human longitudinal exercise interventions that reported changes in the gut microbiota; frequency, intensity, duration and type of exercise were assessed to determine the influence of these variables on changes to the gut microbiota in both healthy individuals and clinical populations (PROPERO registration: CRD42022309854). Using PRISMA guidelines, trials analysing gut microbiota change with exercise interventions were included independent of trial randomisation, population, trial duration or analysis technique. Studies were excluded when microbiota abundance was not reported or when exercise was combined with other interventions. Twenty-eight trials were included, of which twelve involved healthy populations only and sixteen involved mixed or clinical-only populations. The findings show that participation in exercise of moderate to high-intensity for 30-90 min ≥3 times per week (or between 150-270 min per week) for ≥8 weeks is likely to produce changes in the gut microbiota. Exercise appears to be effective in modifying the gut microbiota in both clinical and healthy populations. A more robust methodology is needed in future studies to improve the certainty of the evidence.

The Impact of the Different Stages of COVID-19, Time of the Week and Exercise Frequency on Mental Distress in Men and Women.

The COVID-19 pandemic produced life disturbances and loss of routine which affected diet and sleep quality as well as physical exercise frequency. Interestingly, mental distress was higher even in those who exercised. The purpose of this study was to assess exercise frequency in relation to different levels of mental distress severity in men and women while accounting for working days and weekends. A de-identified secondary data set was analyzed. Regression analyses produced models of the different stages of COVID-19 in relation to physical exercise frequency and mental distress levels. Margin analysis generated predictive models that could be used prophylactically to customize physical exercise frequencies in men and women to reduce their risk of mental distress during future pandemics. Mental distress during the lockdown and after ease of restrictions was associated with different physical exercise frequencies, with a noticeable difference between men and women. During a pandemic, sedentary men are more likely to be mentally distressed during working days. Nevertheless, moderately active, but not very active women, may be less distressed during pandemic weekends. These findings may provide a framework to optimize mental health during different stages of a pandemic by customizing physical exercise frequencies based on gender and time of the week.

The Influence of Physical Exercise Frequency and Intensity on Individual Entrepreneurial Behavior: Evidence from China.

Physical exercise can benefit individuals' physical and mental health and also influence individuals' long-term behavioral choices. Doing exercise is particularly important given that physical exercise can impact individuals' cognitive abilities and positive emotional states, which may further impact entrepreneurial behavior. Therefore, understanding the relationship between exercise and entrepreneurial behavior is essential, because it can provide policy suggestions for popularizing athletic activities and boosting entrepreneurship. Consequently, the present study examined whether physical exercise could predict entrepreneurial behavior and the possible psychological mechanisms within this relationship. Based on the 2017 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS2017), this study tested the hypotheses using the Probit and Tobit models. The results showed that individuals' physical exercise intensity and frequency positively affected their entrepreneurial behavior. In addition, five variables moderated the relationships between physical exercise and individual entrepreneurial behavior: urban-rural differences, education level, marital status, the existence of minor children, and age. Moreover, positive emotions and physical/mental health mediated the influence of physical exercise (exercise frequency and exercise intensity) on individual entrepreneurial behavior. Endogeneity explanations were ruled out by including instrumental variable, copula terms and adopting coarsened exact matching.

Physical Exercise Ameliorates Anxiety, Depression and Sleep Quality in College Students: Experimental Evidence from Exercise Intensity and Frequency.

BACKGROUND: The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of exercise intensity and exercise frequency on anxiety, depression and sleep quality in college students. METHODS: All participants came from a university in northeastern China. All participants were tested for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and were diagnosed with anxiety disorders. The research subjects were divided into six groups, namely the low-intensity and low-frequency group (group 1), low-intensity and moderate-frequency group (group 2), low-intensity and high-frequency group (group 3), high-intensity and low-frequency group (group 4), and high-intensity and moderate-frequency group (group 5) and high-intensity and high-frequency group (group 6). The duration of each physical exercise for each group was 1 h. Participants' exercise intensity was monitored using Polar H10 HR sensors and the Borg RPE scale. The experiment was carried out for a total of 6 weeks. The researchers conducted pre- and post-test scores on the subjects' anxiety, depression and sleep quality through questionnaires. RESULTS: Exercise intensity improved anxiety and decreased symptoms of depression better than exercise frequency; sleep quality was more closely related to exercise intensity. CONCLUSION: Exercise intensity and exercise frequency have different effects on anxiety, depression and sleep quality improvement, indicating that exercise intensity and exercise frequency have different effects on anxiety, depression and sleep quality of college students.

Gender differences in stress, resilience, and physical activity during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Objective: To evaluate gender differences in physical activity (PA), stress and resiliency during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants: Students (n = 300) at a southeastern US university. Methods: Perceived Stress (PSS), Resiliency (BRS), Life Events (LEI), and PA were recorded via online survey in Summer 2020. PSS, BRS, LEI, and PA were compared between males and females. Two-way ANOVAs examined gender and frequency effects on PSS and BRS. Results: Females had lower BRS and higher PSS and LEI scores than males (all p < .001). PSS/BRS scores were more strongly correlated with PA in males. Significant gender × frequency interactions were found for PSS (vigorous, p = .03) and for BRS (moderate, p = .049). There was a significant main effect of frequency for PSS with strength training (p < .001). Conclusions: Results suggest that interventions may be particularly needed for females and those with low PA levels.

Effects of exercise intensity and frequency on improving cognitive performance in middle-aged and older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A pilot randomized controlled trial on the minimum physical activity recommendation from WHO.

Background: The World Health Organization physical activity guidelines recommend adults and older adults to accumulate at least 150-300 min of moderate or 75-150 min of vigorous aerobic-type physical activity weekly for health benefits including improvements of cognitive performance. However, the optimal exercise intensity and frequency for maximizing the cognitive benefits remain unclear. Purpose: We conducted a parallel, assessor-blinded, pilot randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of different intensities and frequencies of the WHO-recommended minimal volume of aerobic-type physical activity on improving cognitive performance in middle-aged and older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Methods: Participants were randomly allocated to the stretching exercise control group (CON), once-a-week and thrice-a-week moderate-intensity walking groups (M1 and M3), and once-a-week and thrice-a-week vigorous-intensity walking groups (V1 and V3). Intervention duration was 12 weeks. The primary outcome was global cognitive performance assessed by the Hong Kong version of Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Secondary outcomes were self-report and objective cognitive performances, mental health, sleep quality, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Results: Thirty-seven participants completed the study (CON: n = 7, M1: n = 7, M3: n = 7, V1: n = 8, V3: n = 8). Participants in all four walking exercise groups demonstrated significant improvements in global cognitive performance assessed by the Hong Kong version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment after the intervention when compared to CON (p < 0.001). The walking exercise interventions also significantly mitigated the anxiety severity (p < 0.005) and improved the cardiorespiratory fitness (p < 0.05) of the participants in the walking exercise groups. Conclusion: 150-min moderate- or 75-min vigorous-intensity walking exercise performed once- or thrice-weekly showed similar effects on improving cognitive performance in middle-aged and older adults with MCI. The 12-week walking exercise interventions also reduced anxiety severity and improved cardiorespiratory fitness of the participants. Clinical Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT04515563.

Role of Sociocultural Pressures and Internalization of Appearance Ideals in the Motivation for Exercise.

This study examined the mediating role of sociocultural pressures (i.e., parental, peer, significant others, and media) and the internalization of appearance ideals (i.e., thin, muscular, attractive) on the relationship of Body Mass Index (BMI) and exercise frequency to exercise motives (i.e., weight management, appearance, positive health). A total of 262 young women, age 18 to 29, participated in the study. Average BMI in this sample was 22.09 (SD = 2.69) and ranged from 18.03 to 31.51, with 15.3% of the sample having a BMI of 25 and above, which qualifies as overweight. Participants completed Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4-Revised and Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2) along with some demographic information and questions regarding their exercise habits. The results indicated that women with higher BMI are more motivated to exercise to lose weight, and women who exercise more frequently are motivated by the aspect of positive health. Also, women with higher BMI perceive more sociocultural pressures to obtain a culturally acceptable body. The sociocultural pressures and appearance internalization mediated the relationship between BMI and the frequency of exercise with motives for exercise. The implications and future directions of research are discussed.

The Effect of Head-Out Aquatic Exercise on Arterial Stiffness in Middle-Aged and Elderly People.

Aquatic exercise is ideal for older adults because it mitigates weight-bearing stress. However, the effect of head-out aquatic exercise on arterial stiffness, a strong future cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, remains unclear. We determined whether head-out aquatic exercise would mitigate arterial stiffness in middle-aged and elderly people. In 25 middle-aged and older people (9 men, mean age 64 ± 8 years), blood pressure (BP) and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV) were measured before and after a supervised aquatic exercise training program (60 min, 1 session/week, 14 sessions) which mainly consisted of walking, stretching, and muscle strengthening in water. In the pooled subjects, systolic BP tended to decrease (p = 0.07) after the training intervention, whereas no significant changes were observed, including baPWV (from 1,537 ± 301 to 1,496 ± 308 cm/s). In the sub-analysis, by dividing subjects into a healthy group (n = 13) and a CVD risk group (n = 12), no significant interaction between time and group was seen in BP. On the other hand, baPWV decreased significantly in the healthy group (from 1,476 ± 299 to 1,365 ± 215 cm/s) but not in the CVD risk group (from 1,603 ± 301 to 1,637 ± 339 cm/s). The current study demonstrates that regular head-out aquatic exercise, even at a low frequency, could mitigate CVD risk in apparently healthy middle-aged and older people.