Order Keepers or Immigration Agents? Latine Immigrant Views of Law Enforcement in Healthcare Settings.

BACKGROUND: Police and security presence in healthcare settings have grown. There are few studies exploring perceptions of these law enforcement agents among US Latine immigrants, who can be vulnerable to immigration enforcement actions due to past and ongoing criminalization and anti-immigrant policies. OBJECTIVE: To explore Latine immigrants' perceptions of law enforcement in healthcare settings. DESIGN: Exploratory, semi-structured qualitative interviews asked participants about their perspectives of law enforcement in healthcare settings. PARTICIPANTS: English- and Spanish-speaking adult patients (n = 19) from a Federally Qualified Health Center (FQHC) in Los Angeles, CA, serving predominantly low-income Latine immigrants. APPROACH: We used the framework method for analysis to establish a codebook and inform our thematic interpretation. KEY RESULTS: We identified three themes: (1) perceptions of safety offered by police officers are separated from the role of immigration officers; (2) perceptions of police officers are integrated into broader perceptions of the healthcare system; and (3) lived experiences, including immigration status, influenced valence response to officer uniforms and perceptions of officers. Most participants viewed police officers positively as maintaining order and safety, separating them from federal immigration enforcement actions, and reflecting on local, state, and organizational "sanctuary" or immigrant-friendly policies. Individuals with precarious immigration status more often saw officers as intimidating. Immigration enforcement remained a key concern. CONCLUSIONS: Differentiating police and security roles from immigration enforcement in healthcare could improve Latine immigrant trust and access. Future studies should explore perspectives of Latine immigrants in localities without sanctuary laws or organizational immigrant-friendly policies.

Impact of L-theanine and L-tyrosine on markers of stress and cognitive performance in response to a virtual reality based active shooter training drill.

Ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine has been shown to reduce salivary stress biomarkers and improve aspects of cognitive performance in response to stress. However, there have been no studies to concurrently examine the impact of both L-theanine and L-tyrosine ingestion during a mental stress challenge (MSC) involving a brief cognitive challenge and a virtual reality based active shooter training drill. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the impact of ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine on markers of stress and cognitive performance in response to a virtual reality active shooter drill and cognitive challenge. The cognitive challenge involved a Stroop challenge and mental arithmetic. Eighty subjects (age = 21 ± 2.6 yrs; male = 46; female = 34) were randomly assigned L-tyrosine (n = 28; 2000 mg), L-theanine (n = 25; 200 mg), or placebo (n = 27) prior to MSC exposure. Saliva samples, state-anxiety inventory (SAI) scales, and heart rate (HR) were collected before and after exposure to the MSC. Saliva was analyzed for stress markers α-amylase (sAA) and secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA). The MSC resulted in significant increases in sAA, SIgA, HR, and SAI. Ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine did not impact markers of stress. However, the L-tyrosine treatment demonstrated significantly lower missed responses compared to the placebo treatment group during the Stroop challenge. These data demonstrate that ingestion of L-theanine or L-tyrosine does not impact markers of stress in response to a MSC but may impact cognitive performance. This study was pre-registered as a clinical trial ("Impact of supplements on stress markers": NCT05592561).

Fighting behavior, conflict perceptions, and firearm access among U.S. adolescents in a pediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: Prior evidence demonstrates that both firearm access and fighting can predict future violence and injury in adolescents. We aimed to examine associations between firearm access with fighting behavior and conflict perception in a sample of adolescents in an urban emergency department (ED) setting. METHODS: In 2023, we conducted a secondary analysis of 13,610 adolescent encounters in the ED of a U.S. children's hospital from 2013 to 2020, using a universally applied, self-administered computerized behavioral health survey. We compared patient characteristics by reported firearm access and fighting behavior using chi-squared tests. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to investigate associations between 1) fighting behavior and firearm access, and 2) between fighting behavior and respondent preference to and reporting of fighting incident to law enforcement after adjusting for race and ethnicity, age, and gender. RESULTS: Approximately one-quarter of the sample reported past year fighting. Youth who reported fighting were more likely to report firearm access (AOR = 1.66, 95%CI = [1.49-1.86]). This association strengthened among youth who perceived continued conflict after a fight (AOR = 2.05, 95%CI = [1.73-2.43]). Youth who perceived continued conflict following a fight were more likely to report (AOR = 1.97, 95%CI = [1.65-2.36]) or want to report (AOR = 2.63, 95%CI = [1.81-3.81]) the fight to law enforcement. CONCLUSIONS: Those perceiving continued conflict after a fight were more likely to report access to firearms and endorse retaliation; however, they were more likely to want to report the fight to law enforcement. These findings highlight the potential for more comprehensive ED risk assessment to reduce retaliation and reinjury for adolescents reporting fighting behavior.

Relationship between Civilian Injuries Caused during Contact with Law Enforcement and Community-Level Sociodemographic Characteristics.

Civilian injuries caused during contact with law enforcement personnel erode community trust in policing, impact individual well-being, and exacerbate existing health inequities. We assessed the relationship between ZIP code-level rates of civilian injuries caused during legal interventions and community-level sociodemographic characteristics using Illinois hospital data from 2016 to 2022. We developed multivariable Poisson regression models to examine whether legal intervention injury rates differed by race-ethnicity and community economic disadvantage across three geographic regions of Illinois representing different levels of urbanization. Over the study period, 4976 civilian injuries were treated in Illinois hospitals (rate of 5.6 per 100,000 residents). Compared to non-Hispanic white residents, non-Hispanic Black residents demonstrated 5.5-10.5 times higher injury rates across the three geographic regions, and Hispanic-Latino residents demonstrated higher rates in Chicago and suburban Cook County, but lower rates in the rest of the state. In most regions, models showed that as the percent of minority residents in a ZIP code increased, injury rates among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic-Latino residents decreased. As community economic disadvantage increased at the ZIP code level, civilian injury rates increased. Communities with the highest injury rates involving non-Hispanic white residents were significantly more economically unequal and disadvantaged. While the injury rates were consistently and substantially higher among non-Hispanic Black residents throughout the state, the findings illustrate that the association between overall civilian injuries caused during contact with law enforcement and community sociodemographic characteristics varied across regions. Data on local law enforcement agency policies and procedures are needed to better identify appropriate interventions.

Recreational cannabis legalization and immigration enforcement: a state-level analysis of arrests and deportations in the United States, 2009-2020.

BACKGROUND: Recreational cannabis laws (RCL) in the United States (US) can have important implications for people who are non-citizens, including those with and without formal documentation, and those who are refugees or seeking asylum. For these groups, committing a cannabis-related infraction, even a misdemeanor, can constitute grounds for status ineligibility, including arrest and deportation under federal immigration policy-regardless of state law. Despite interconnections between immigration and drug policy, the potential impacts of increasing state cannabis legalization on immigration enforcement are unexplored. METHODS: In this repeated cross-sectional analysis, we tested the association between state-level RCL adoption and monthly, state-level prevalence of immigration arrests and deportations related to cannabis possession. Data were from the Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. Immigration arrest information was available from Oct-2014 to May-2018 and immigration deportation information were available from Jan-2009 to Jun-2020 for. To test associations with RCLs, we fit Poisson fixed effects models that controlled for pre-existing differences between states, secular trends, and potential sociodemographic, sociopolitical, and setting-related confounders. Sensitivity analyses explored potential violations to assumptions and sensitivity to modeling specifications. RESULTS: Over the observation period, there were 7,739 immigration arrests and 48,015 deportations referencing cannabis possession. By 2020, 12 stated adopted recreational legalization and on average immigration enforcement was lower among RCL compared to non-RCL states. In primary adjusted models, we found no meaningful changes in arrest prevalence, either immediately following RCL adoption (Prevalence Ratio [PR]: 0.84; [95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.57, 1.11]), or 1-year after the law was effective (PR: 0.88 [CI: 0.56, 1.20]). For the deportation outcome, however, RCL adoption was associated with a moderate relative decrease in deportation prevalence in RCL versus non-RCL states (PR: 0.68 [CI: 0.56, 0.80]; PR 1-year lag: 0.68 [CI: 0.54, 0.82]). Additional analyses were mostly consistent by suggested some sensitivities to modeling specification. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that decreasing penalties for cannabis possession through state RCLs may reduce some aspects of immigration enforcement related to cannabis possession. Greater attention to the immigration-related consequences of current drug control policies is warranted, particularly as more states weigh the public health benefits and drawbacks of legalizing cannabis.

Psychometric properties of the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire-short form among law enforcement officers.

Repeatedly capturing national headlines, excessive law enforcement officer (LEO) use of force in critical incident encounters is one of the most divisive human rights issues in the United States. Valid and reliable measures of potential precursors to LEO excessive use of force, such as aggression, are needed. The Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire-short form (BPAQ-SF) is a validated measure of aggression across various populations; however, evaluation of this easily administered measure in high-stress, frontline populations such as LEOs is limited. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the validity, reliability, and sensitivity to change the BPAQ-SF in a sample of LEOs. A confirmatory factor analysis suggested that the hierarchical solution provides a mixed fit to the data: SBχ²(25.84) = 62.50, p = .0001; comparative fit index = .94, non-normed fit index = .92, root mean square error of approximation = .19 (90% confidence interval = .17-.21), standardized root mean squared residual = .08. The BPAQ-SF demonstrated good internal consistency (α = .84) and test-retest reliability (r = .86), correlations in the expected direction with predictors of and buffers against aggression, and sensitivity to change among LEOs who participated in an intervention targeting aggression. Results support and extend previous findings suggesting that the BPAQ-SF is a valid and reliable measure of aggression among LEOs.

ARRIVE Together: A Qualitative Process Evaluation of the New Jersey State Police Co-responding Pilot Program.

Law enforcement personnel are often first to respond to calls involving behavioral health emergencies. However, encounters with law enforcement are more dangerous and lethal for people with behavioral health conditions. Co-responding models, wherein law enforcement and behavioral health professionals respond to calls together, are among the top programs developed to improve responding to behavioral health crises. The current study describes a qualitative process evaluation of a co-responding pilot program in New Jersey: "Alternative Responses to Reduce Instances of Violence & Escalation" (ARRIVE Together). The evaluation centered on the experience of the co-responding team as to their perceptions of specific deployments and of the program implementation overall. Semi-structured interviews were conducted following 10 consecutive encounters (three interviews per encounter; February-March 2022). Transcripts were transcribed and thematically analyzed by two trained researchers independently. Once thematically analyzed, researchers determined a consensus and developed a SWOT analysis report. Thematic analysis produced six major themes: communication, staffing, training, resources, community outreach, and deployments with minors. Overall, participants were enthusiastic about the program, but they shared numerous observations about ways in which the program could be improved. Sample size, the brief follow-up window, and lack of generalizability to other contexts were among the most limiting factors. Further research should include an effectiveness evaluation and extend to urban and suburban communities and communities of color. Future research should also explore after-response affects including accessibility to follow-up care. The current study gives insight into piloting a co-responding model for approaching behavioral health crisis calls.

Sensor for Rapid In-Field Classification of Cannabis Samples Based on Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

A rugged handheld sensor for rapid in-field classification of cannabis samples based on their THC content using ultra-compact near-infrared spectrometer technology is presented. The device is designed for use by the Austrian authorities to discriminate between legal and illegal cannabis samples directly at the place of intervention. Hence, the sensor allows direct measurement through commonly encountered transparent plastic packaging made from polypropylene or polyethylene without any sample preparation. The measurement time is below 20 s. Measured spectral data are evaluated using partial least squares discriminant analysis directly on the device's hardware, eliminating the need for internet connectivity for cloud computing. The classification result is visually indicated directly on the sensor via a colored LED. Validation of the sensor is performed on an independent data set acquired by non-expert users after a short introduction. Despite the challenging setting, the achieved classification accuracy is higher than 80%. Therefore, the handheld sensor has the potential to reduce the number of unnecessarily confiscated legal cannabis samples, which would lead to significant monetary savings for the authorities.

Spirituality/Religion Among First Responders With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Misuse.

Objective: To examine the co-occurrence of alcohol misuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and potential sources of coping (e.g., spirituality/religion) and clinically relevant variables among first responders (e.g., firefighters, law enforcement corrections officers, paramedics). Method: We assessed rates of independent and co-occurring alcohol misuse and PTSD among a national online sample of 320 first responders as well as the prevalence and salience of S/R, guilt, shame, moral injury, aspects of S/R, and treatment interest. Results: In our sample, 46.88% (n = 150) met criteria for comorbid alcohol misuse and probable PTSD and individuals with these comorbid conditions reported significantly greater negative religious coping, moral injury, and shame than all other diagnostic groups (i.e., independent alcohol misuse, independent PTSD, and neither). Correlations also revealed significant relationships between alcohol misuse and PTSD symptomatology with positive and negative religious coping, moral injury, shame, guilt, interest in treatment, and interest in spiritually integrated treatment. Conclusions: Findings highlight the high rates of independent and co-occurring alcohol misuse and PTSD among first responders as well as the salience of S/R in this population.

Contextual Factors of Mental Health Crisis Calls to Law Enforcement: A Brief Report.

Law enforcement officers are frequent first responders to people experiencing mental health or suicide crises. Yet, as communities consider expanding crisis response options, we know very little about the nature of these calls that could inform decision making about which crisis response is best suited for the situation. This study is an exploratory, descriptive assessment of contextual factors, both individual and situational, of mental health and suicide crisis calls. Our dataset includes 166 calls to 9-1-1 related to a mental health emergency or suicide crisis. The majority were calls related to suicide (125 calls, 75%), which included more contextual factors than mental health crisis calls. Most calls resulted in the subject being transferred to the local emergency department (60%) or were resolved on scene (12%). Police use of force was rare, and no arrests were reported. The implications of these findings for communities developing alternatives to law enforcement crisis response are discussed.

Adult Drug Treatment Courts and Community-Level Drug Possession Arrests.

Though the literature largely recognizes adult drug treatment courts (ADCs) as beneficial to participants, with lower rates of recidivism and drug use, the question remains of how ADCs impact communities and how other institutions (e.g., law enforcement) react to their presence. This study extends previous work estimating higher arrests associated with ADCs, particularly for crimes involving higher degrees of law enforcement discretion. Results indicate lower drug possession arrest rates for White residents in rural communities, and higher in urban areas, generally, but especially for Black citizens. Though the exact source of these changes has yet to be determined, current analysis indicates larger effect sizes for arrests scaled per officer, as compared to per population, pointing toward changes in law enforcement behavior.

Engaging Law Enforcement Employees in Mental Health Help-Seeking: Examining the Utilization of Interactive Screening Program and Motivational Interviewing Techniques.

AIM: The Interactive Screening Program (ISP) is an anonymous screening and dialogue platform used in workplaces to encourage mental health help-seeking. This study examined utilization of ISP among law enforcement workplaces and assessed how motivational interviewing techniques were associated with various help-seeking outcomes. METHOD: This retrospective study used secondary ISP screening and dialogue data collected from 2013 to 2019 at four law enforcement workplaces or unions (N = 691). Independent variables include counselors' use of motivational interviewing techniques in their dialogue such as asking questions and showing empathy in their response. Help-seeking outcomes include requesting a referral, making a commitment to counseling services, decreased ambivalence about mental health services, and increased willingness to seek future services. RESULTS: Two-thirds of participants screened within the high distress level of ISP. Among them, 53% responded to the counselor's initial email and 50% of those who responded requested a referral for future services. Binary logistic regression models showed that counselors' use of confrontation in the dialogue was associated with improved willingness to seek services among ISP users (OR = 2.88, 95% CI = 1.24, 6.64). Further, ISP users who accessed ISP through their workplace peer support program, as compared to their employee assistance program (EAP), are more likely to show decreased ambivalence about seeking future services over time (OR = 0.28, 95% CI = 0.09, 0.80). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that the anonymous ISP program can successfully engage employees with high distress levels, including employees with suicidal ideation. Results highlight the importance of customizing ISP counselors' responses to be responsive for law enforcement employees.

Gender differences in homicides. A comparative analysis of 106 fatalities in forensic autopsy data.

While most homicides worldwide are committed against men, women and girls are disproportionately affected by domestic violence and its fatal consequences. The Istanbul Convention mandates the prevention of gender-based violence, particularly against women. This study analyzes the characteristics of male and female victims of homicides to provide a comprehensive understanding of the different situations and ways in which men and women are killed. Files of 106 forensic autopsies of homicide victims aged 14 years and older (51.9% males, 48.1% females) from 2012 to 2019 were reviewed. Demographic data, previous history with a focus on the perpetrator-victim relationship, substance influence, type of violence and law enforcement data were recorded. A gender-separated statistical analysis was carried out. Male victims were killed most often outside their own home (63.6%) by acquaintances or friends (54.5%). They were frequently under the influence of substances (56.4%). The perpetrators suffered from addictive diseases in 49.1%, and 52.7% had prior convictions. In both groups, stab/cut injuries were the most common causes of death, but stab/cut and gunshot injuries occurred more frequently in male victims. Female victims were killed most often in their own homes (76.5%) by intimate partners (62.7%). Compared to male victims, violent asphyxiation and blunt force trauma were more common causes of death. Furthermore, there was a higher frequency of multiple injuries (33.3%). The prevalence of a guilty verdict of the perpetrators was nearly equal in both groups. Gender-specific aspects should be considered when investigating homicides and establishing prevention and intervention strategies for interpersonal violence. Protective concepts are easier to establish in the public sphere than in private homes, which is why homicides against women require special attention in society, law enforcement, and legislation. Significant gender differences were found in the circumstances and the perpetrator-victim relationships of homicides. Gender-specific aspects should be taken into account when investigating homicides and developing prevention and intervention strategies. Homicides against women require special attention in society, law enforcement and legislation.

Increasing disclosures of older adult maltreatment: a review of best practices for interviewing older adult eyewitnesses and victims.

The current article provides a contemporary review of the best practices for interviewing older adults about crimes they witnessed or experienced. Specifically, we provide a detailed overview of how investigators can use a range of interviewing adaptations and procedures to acquire detailed and accurate maltreatment disclosures from older adults. In addition to discussing well-established investigative interviewing practices (e.g. rapport building, free-recall, cognitive instructions and prompts), this article also summarizes more recent literature on the benefits of multidisciplinary investigations, use of assistive technology and interview accommodations, along with effective practices for working with minority and marginalized older adults. Lastly, several research, professional and policy recommendations are provided for supporting older adults during investigative interviews.

Law Enforcement and Patient Privacy Among Survivors of Violence: A Nationwide Mixed-Methods Study.

INTRODUCTION: During the emergent treatment of violently injured patients, law enforcement (LE) officers and health care providers frequently interact. Both have duties to protect patient health, rights, and public health, however, the balance of these duties may feel at odds. The purpose of this study is to assess hospital-based violence intervention program (HVIP) representatives' experiences with LE officers among survivors of violence and the impact of hospital policies on interactions with LE officers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A nationwide survey was distributed to the 35 HVIPs that form the Health Alliance for Violence Intervention. Data regarding respondent affiliation, programs, and perceptions of hospital policies outlining LE activity were collected. Follow-up video interviews were open coded and qualitatively analyzed using grounded theory. RESULTS: Respondents from 32 HVIPs completed the survey (91%), and 22 interviews (63%) were conducted. Common themes from interviews were: police-patient interactions; racism, bias, and victims' treatment as suspects; and training and education. Only 39% of respondents knew that policies existed and were familiar with them. Most representatives believed their hospitals' existing policies were inadequate, ineffective, or biased. Programs that reported good working relationships with LE officers offered insight on how their programs maintain these partnerships and work with LE officers towards a common goal. CONCLUSIONS: Unclear or inadequate policies relating to LE activity may jeopardize the health and privacy of violently injured patients. Primary areas identified for improvement include clarifying and revising hospital policies, education of staff and LE officers, and improved communication between health care providers and LE officers to better protect patient rights.

Assessment of immigration law enforcement presence in a teaching hospital along the US/Mexico border.

BACKGROUND: Over the past decade, the United States (US) has seen a spike in migration across the US-Mexico border with an increase in hospital admissions of migrants and asylum-seekers under the custody of immigration law enforcement (ILE). This study aimed to determine how the presence of ILE officials affects patient care and provider experience in a teaching hospital setting. METHODS: This cross-sectional online survey solicited quantitative and qualitative feedback from medical students, residents, and attending physicians (n = 1364) at a teaching hospital system with two campuses in Arizona. The survey included participant demographics and addressed participants' experience caring for patients in ILE custody, including the perception of respect, violations of patients' privacy and autonomy, and the comfort level with understanding hospital policies and patient rights. Thematic analyses were also performed based on respondent comments. RESULTS: 332 individuals (24%) responded to the survey. Quantitative analyses revealed that 14% of participants described disrespectful behaviors of ILE officials, mainly toward detained patients. Qualitative thematic analyses of respondent comments revealed details on such disrespectful encounters including ILE officers violating the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and using intimidation tactics with patients. Nearly half of the respondents did not have knowledge of policies about ILE detainees' medical care, detainees' privacy rights, or ILE's authority in patient care. CONCLUSIONS: This study points out the complexities, challenges, and ethical considerations of caring for patients in ILE custody in the hospital setting and the need to educate healthcare professionals on both patient and provider rights. It describes the lived experiences and difficulties that providers on the border face in trying to achieve equity in the care they provide to detained migrant patients.

Suicides in Brazilian Federal Highway Police: A retrospective study with 20-years' data (2001-2020).

BACKGROUND: To assess the incidence of suicides among Brazilian Federal Highway Police Officers (FHPO) between 2001 and 2020, as well as to describe their sociodemographic and occupational profile. METHODS: A retrospective study analyzed all suicides among FHPO of all Brazilian states between 2001 and 2020 based on personalized police record files. RESULTS: The average suicide rate was 18.7/100,000 persons per year. A total of 35 suicides were identified, of which 33 (91.4%) were by firearm. Most FHPO who died by suicide were male (94.3%), under the age of 40 (62.9%), working for 10 or more years (57.1%), married (65.7%), parents (68.6%), had health insurance (77.1%), and worked in alternating shifts (54.2%). CONCLUSION: The suicide rate among FHPO is high. Due to missing data on age and gender, standardized rates were not reported in the current study, therefore a careful interpretation of the rates reported should be considered.

Occupational injuries and illnesses among law enforcement officers, 2001-2019: Findings from the Ohio Bureau of Workers' Compensation.

BACKGROUND: Occupational injuries are common among law enforcement officers (LEOs) and can impact an agency's ability to serve communities. Workers' compensation (WC) data are an underutilized source for occupational injury surveillance in the law enforcement field. METHODS: LEOs WC claims from the Ohio Bureau of Workers' Compensation (OHBWC) from 2001 to 2019 were identified based on manual review of the occupation title and injury description. Worker, employer, incident, and injury characteristics were described by claim type-medical-only (MO) and lost-time (8 or more days away from work). Data are presented using injury claim counts. RESULTS: From 2001 to 2019, 50,793 WC claims were identified among Ohio LEOs. Of these, 68% were MO claims (n = 34,622). WC claims significantly decreased over the 19-year period (p < 0.001). Seventy-five percent of WC claims were from a LEO with more than one claim and of these, 34% were from a LEO with five or more claims during the study period. Male officers and those aged 25-54 years incurred the highest proportion of total claims (87.8% & 91.8%, respectively). Violence (n = 17,247; 34%), falls/slips/trips (n = 9079; 17.9%), and transportation events (n = 7977; 15.7%) were the leading events. Among the 50,793 claims, there were 79,637 unique clinical diagnosis groups. The most common injury diagnoses were sprains (n = 32,796; 41.2%) followed by contusions (n = 13,529; 17%). CONCLUSIONS: Results can guide the development or improvement of workplace injury prevention strategies for LEOs. Efforts should be focused on better understanding and preventing violent injury events and sprains among LEOs, as well as preventing multiple injury events.

Lethal Force Usage by Law Enforcement Officers Against Hispanics, 2011-2020.

Most research on lethal force by law enforcement officers (LEOs) has focused on firearm deaths by LEOs among certain racial groups (e.g., African Americans). Specifically, not much is known about LEOs-induced lethal injuries among Hispanics. The purpose of this study was to characterize LEOs induced fatal injuries, the methods used, among various demographic groups of Hispanics, and the years of potential life lost before the age of 80 years due to lethal force by LEOs. Data from the Web-Based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) were analyzed for the years 2011-2020. LEOs killed 1,158 Hispanics; most were males (96.2%) with the majority being shot (89.9%). Two-thirds (66.9%) of those killed were Hispanics 20-39 years of age and from the Western U.S. These Hispanic deaths resulted in 53,320 YPLLs. Males and those ages 20-39 years lost the most YPLLs. The rate of fatal encounters with LEOs for Hispanics grew by 44.4% over the decade, with the highest rate in 2020. Mitigation of unnecessary Hispanic deaths by LEOs needs to include changes in law enforcement agency policies, hiring practices for LEOs, improved data collection for LEOs use of lethal force, improved mental healthcare and training for LEOs, use of less lethal strategies for citizen control by law enforcement, deference education for all young adults, and long-term changes in social forces that have created and maintained disenfranchised communities of color.

Descriptive Epidemiology of Fatal Law Enforcement Interactions with Teenagers, 2010-2020.

There is a dearth of population studies regarding law enforcement officers (LEOs) use of fatal force against teenagers. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to characterize the teens most likely to be killed, the methods used to fatally injure teenagers, the geographic distribution of the killings, and the years of potential life lost before the age of 80 years (YPLL80) due to LEO interactions. Data from the Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) were analyzed for the years 2010-2020. LEOs killed 330 teenagers; most were males (94.2%) and 6 of 7 teens (84.5%) were shot. The teens killed were disproportionately older teens ages 18-19 years (64.2%) and non-Hispanic Blacks (45.8%) who were usually killed in metropolitan areas (90.0%). The rate of teenage killings by LEOs significantly increased (267%) over the time frame studied. A total of 20,575 YPLL80 were lost and they significantly increased over time (263%). Mitigation of teenagers killed by LEOs will require transforming policing through policy changes (e.g. hiring and training) over an extended period of time. Also, the public needs education, (e.g. funding, interactions) regarding policing.