Impact of Fatigue on Ergonomic Risk Scores and Foot Kinetics: A Field Study Employing Inertial and In-Shoe Plantar Pressure Measurement Devices.

(1) Background: Occupational fatigue is a primary factor leading to work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs). Kinematic and kinetic experimental studies have been able to identify indicators of WRMSD, but research addressing real-world workplace scenarios is lacking. Hence, the authors of this study aimed to assess the influence of physical strain on the Borg CR-10 body map, ergonomic risk scores, and foot pressure in a real-world setting. (2) Methods: Twenty-four participants (seventeen men and seven women) were included in this field study. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) (n = 24) and in-shoe plantar pressure measurements (n = 18) captured the workload of production and office workers at the beginning of their work shift and three hours later, working without any break. In addition to the two 12 min motion capture processes, a Borg CR-10 body map and fatigue visual analog scale (VAS) were applied twice. Kinematic and kinetic data were processed using MATLAB and SPSS software, resulting in scores representing the relative distribution of the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) and Computer-Assisted Recording and Long-Term Analysis of Musculoskeletal Load (CUELA), and in-shoe plantar pressure. (3) Results: Significant differences were observed between the two measurement times of physical exertion and fatigue, but not for ergonomic risk scores. Contrary to the hypothesis of the authors, there were no significant differences between the in-shoe plantar pressures. Significant differences were observed between the dominant and non-dominant sides for all kinetic variables. (4) Conclusions: The posture scores of RULA and CUELA and in-shoe plantar pressure side differences were a valuable basis for adapting one-sided requirements in the work process of the workers. Traditional observational methods must be adapted more sensitively to detect kinematic deviations at work. The results of this field study enhance our knowledge about the use and benefits of sensors for ergonomic risk assessments and interventions.

Assessing the use of observational methods and real-world data to emulate ongoing randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: There has been growing interest in better understanding the potential of observational research methods in medical product evaluation and regulatory decision-making. Previously, we used linked claims and electronic health record data to emulate two ongoing randomized controlled trials, characterizing the populations and results of each randomized controlled trial prior to publication of its results. Here, our objective was to compare the populations and results from the emulated trials with those of the now-published randomized controlled trials. METHODS: This study compared participants' demographic and clinical characteristics and study results between the emulated trials, which used structured data from OptumLabs Data Warehouse, and the published PRONOUNCE and GRADE trials. First, we examined the feasibility of implementing the baseline participant characteristics included in the published PRONOUNCE and GRADE trials' using real-world data and classified each variable as ascertainable, partially ascertainable, or not ascertainable. Second, we compared the emulated trials and published randomized controlled trials for baseline patient characteristics (concordance determined using standardized mean differences <0.20) and results of the primary and secondary endpoints (concordance determined by direction of effect estimates and statistical significance). RESULTS: The PRONOUNCE trial enrolled 544 participants, and the emulated trial included 2226 propensity score-matched participants. In the PRONOUNCE trial publication, one of the 32 baseline participant characteristics was listed as an exclusion criterion on ClinicalTrials.gov but was ultimately not used. Among the remaining 31 characteristics, 9 (29.0%) were ascertainable, 11 (35.5%) were partially ascertainable, and 10 (32.2%) were not ascertainable using structured data from OptumLabs. For one additional variable, the PRONOUNCE trial did not provide sufficient detail to allow its ascertainment. Of the nine variables that were ascertainable, values in the emulated trial and published randomized controlled trial were discordant for 6 (66.7%). The primary endpoint of time from randomization to the first major adverse cardiovascular event and secondary endpoints of nonfatal myocardial infarction and stroke were concordant between the emulated trial and published randomized controlled trial. The GRADE trial enrolled 5047 participants, and the emulated trial included 7540 participants. In the GRADE trial publication, 8 of 34 (23.5%) baseline participant characteristics were ascertainable, 14 (41.2%) were partially ascertainable, and 11 (32.4%) were not ascertainable using structured data from OptumLabs. For one variable, the GRADE trial did not provide sufficient detail to allow for ascertainment. Of the eight variables that were ascertainable, values in the emulated trial and published randomized controlled trial were discordant for 4 (50.0%). The primary endpoint of time to hemoglobin A1c ≥7.0% was mostly concordant between the emulated trial and the published randomized controlled trial. CONCLUSION: Despite challenges, observational methods and real-world data can be leveraged in certain important situations for a more timely evaluation of drug effectiveness and safety in more diverse and representative patient populations.

Are emotionally competent adults emotionally available parents? Examination of theoretical and empirical relationships in a video-recorded parent-child interaction clinical preschool-aged sample.

OBJECTIVE: Emotional competence (EC) describes one's general ability to perceive, express, process, and regulate their own emotions as well as those of others. In the clinical context of parent-child interactions, the specific ability to perceive, express and regulate a child's emotions is conceptually covered by the Emotional Availability Scales (EAS). We aim to examine theoretical and empirical overlaps between EC (Rindermann) and emotional availability (EA; Biringen) for theoretical, diagnostic, and therapeutic reasons. METHODS: Parents of a clinically referred sample of preschool-aged children (55 dyads) filled out a self-report questionnaire (ECQ), and certified and blinded raters applied the EAS via observations. In a novel approach, the EC was additionally estimated with independent ratings made by two further observers. All dyads were coded on 10-min video-recorded parent-child interactions during free play. RESULTS: In bivariate and multivariate analyses, EC scores from observational ratings were strongly associated with independently rated clinical emotional availability scores. EC scores from self-reports were moderately associated with emotional availability scores. A post hoc power analysis estimated ß error probabilities. CONCLUSIONS: EC may represent an important personal precondition to an emotionally available parent. As such, we discuss implications for early risk factor assessments for child development and highlight new prevention approaches, new diagnostic options, and refined treatment goals. Limitations included the sample size, assessment, and the influence of study design on results.

Couple Communication Behaviors During Sexual and Nonsexual Discussions and Their Association with Relationship Satisfaction.

The quality of communication between romantic partners has consistently been found to be associated with relationship well-being and stability. Studies on sexual and nonsexual communication, however, have typically assessed communication skills and behaviors using self-report measures. The use of observational methods has several advantages, including the ability to capture and allow for the independent coding of both partners' communication behaviors. With few exceptions, research applying observational methods has not distinguished between sexual and nonsexual communication behaviors. In the present study, we asked 126 young, mixed-sex couples to engage in sexual and nonsexual conflict discussions. The two 7-min discussions were videotaped and rated by trained coders on nine behavioral dimensions using an adaptation of the specific affect coding system (Gottman & Krokoff, 1989) and the system for coding interactions and family functioning (Lindahl & Malik, 2001). Coder ratings applied to the discussion as a whole. Analyses included factor analysis on the behavioral dimensions and multilevel modeling incorporating the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM). We found significant differences in how couples interacted during the two discussions, with more positive (affectionate and validating) and less negative behaviors during sexual discussions as compared to nonsexual discussions. In both women and men, expressions of positivity during the two types of conflict discussions were associated with higher relationship satisfaction. Gender differences were found in the association between negative behaviors during sexual discussions and relationship satisfaction, with men but not women's negative behaviors being associated with lower relationship satisfaction. These findings point at distinct qualities of sexual communication and its association with couples' relational well-being and contribute to a better scientific understanding, with clinical relevance, of sexual and nonsexual communication.

Caring Behavior Coding Scheme based on Swanson's Theory of Caring - development and testing among undergraduate nursing students.

RATIONALE: To maintain patients' dignity and well-being and alleviate suffering, it is essential that healthcare providers engage in caring behaviours. Yet, every year patient boards receive an increasing number of complaints from patients and significant others regarding healthcare providers' non-caring behaviours. Defining and measuring both verbal and nonverbal caring and non-caring behaviour in healthcare delivery is vital to address such complaints. However, no studies were found that incorporated a comprehensive theory of caring to code encounters between healthcare providers and patients. AIM: The aim was to develop and test a Caring Behavior Coding Scheme based on Swanson's Theory of Caring. METHOD: An instrument development process was used for behavioural coding including observational data from thirty-eight video recordings collected in an undergraduate nursing course at a Swedish University. The observational data involved interactions between undergraduate nursing students and a standardised patient. RESULT: The Caring Behavior Coding Scheme (the CBCS), contains seventeen verbal and eight nonverbal behavioural codes, categorised as caring and non-caring in accordance with Swanson's Theory of Caring. Content and face validity were assessed. Timed-event sequential continuous coding was performed in INTERACT software. The coder achieved excellent agreement with the developed gold standard (k = 0.87) and excellent mean inter-rater reliability (k = 0.82). All domains in Swanson's Theory of Caring were observed and coded in the interaction. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: The CBCS is a theory-based instrument that contributes to research on healthcare providers' behavioural encounters. It uses verbal and nonverbal caring and non-caring behavioural codes to assess the alignment of both the theory and practice of caring. The CBCS can contribute to both development and measurement of interventions focused on improving healthcare providers' caring behaviour with the intended outcome of patient well-being.

Children's theory of mind as a mechanism linking parents' mind-mindedness in infancy with children's conscience.

Growing research on parental mind-mindedness has revealed significant positive associations between parents' appropriate mind-minded (MM) comments to their infants and children's future theory of mind (ToM). In turn, ToM has been broadly linked with a range of social-moral competencies. However, few (if any) studies have examined long-term paths from mothers' and fathers' mind-mindedness in infancy to conscience at early school age, with ToM serving as a mediator of those links. We tested such a model in a prospective longitudinal study of 102 community infants, mothers, and fathers. Parents' MM comments to their infants were coded in naturalistic interactions in snack and play contexts at 7 months. Children's ToM was assessed in false-belief tasks at 4.5 and 5.5 years, and two aspects of their conscience were assessed at 6.5 years: discomfort following transgressions and prosocial judgments in hypothetical moral dilemmas. We tested our model in a comprehensive path analysis that accounted for developmental continuity of both aspects of conscience. Children's ToM was positively associated with both measures of future conscience. The long-term paths from parental mind-mindedness in infancy to conscience were found for mother-child relationships only. For mothers and children, we supported the paths from maternal appropriate MM comments during a snack context in infancy to both aspects of children's conscience mediated by children's ToM. The findings extend earlier evidence suggesting the potentially important role of the parent-child interactive context for long-term effects of early parental mind-mindedness and highlight differences in the roles MM comments may play in mother-child and father-child relationships.

A replicable, low-burden mechanism for observing, recording, and analysing mother-child interaction in population research.

BACKGROUND: There is growing evidence that specific styles of parent-child interaction benefit child development, particularly child language development. Direct observational techniques help clarify the behaviours and styles within parent-child interactions that may influence child language outcomes; however, these techniques tend to be labour-intensive and costly. We report on the development of a replicable, low-burden mechanism for observing and coding specific maternal linguistic behaviours in a population-based cohort of 2-year-olds. METHODS: The coding scheme was developed as part of a prospective, longitudinal study examining the associations between maternal responsive behaviours and child language outcomes in slow-to-talk toddlers. In the first phase of the study, three coding systems were tested by coding five sample parent-toddler interactions and then comparing them based on (a) the ease of method and thus likely intrarater and interrater reliability and (b) the number of data points. The second phase was to demonstrate how the chosen method could be used in practice with a large at-risk group of toddlers. RESULTS: Of the three coding systems explored, the Observer® XT software was selected for ease of use and because detailed coding of free-play videos could be achieved in close to real time. Intrarater and interrater reliability were established in 251 mother-child free-play videos, producing high intraclass correlation coefficients of 0.95 to 0.99 for the six behaviours. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides evidence that numerous parent-child interactions can be rigourously yet efficiently coded without substantial information loss. The observational mechanism in the current study has been fully developed and is shown to be feasible for research purposes focusing on parent-toddler interactions. However, further testing of the observational mechanism is required to examine whether the same results could be produced if coding was conducted "live" and for shorter duration thereby making it readily useable for clinicians.

Lessons Learned from Crime Caught on Camera.

OBJECTIVES: The widespread use of camera surveillance in public places offers criminologists the opportunity to systematically and unobtrusively observe crime, their main subject matter. The purpose of this essay is to inform the reader of current developments in research on crimes caught on camera. METHODS: We address the importance of direct observation of behavior and review criminological studies that used observational methods, with and without cameras, including the ones published in this issue. We also discuss the uses of camera recordings in other social sciences and in biology. RESULTS: We formulate six key insights that emerge from the literature and make recommendations for future research. CONCLUSIONS: Camera recordings of real-life crime are likely to become part of the criminological tool kit that will help us better understand the situational and interactional elements of crime. Like any source, it has limitations that are best addressed by triangulation with other sources.

Mexican American adolescent couples' vulnerability for observed negativity and physical violence: Pregnancy and acculturation mismatch.

Stress and vulnerability for dating violence may be heightened among acculturating Mexican American (MA) adolescents, and MA adolescent parents, because of differing cultural values and norms within romantic relationships. We hypothesized, in a sample of MA heterosexual couples (N = 30, 15-17 years), that: 1) within-couple level acculturation discrepancies, and pregnancy/parenting, would predict physical violence perpetration, and 2) that this association would have an indirect effect through couple-level negativity during an observed dyadic video-taped discussion of conflict. Using a path model we found that pregnant/parenting adolescents (B = .37, SE = .16, p = .002), and couples with greater acculturation mismatch resulted in greater couple negativity (B = .16, SE = .06, p = .01), which was associated with self-reported physical violence perpetration (B = .41, SE = .22, p = .02; indirect effect, B = .15, SE = .07, p = .03). Within-couple acculturation discrepancies and pregnancy/parenting may be a pathway to dating violence through poor communication skills around conflict for MA youth. Support services that strengthen communication skills, particularly for pregnant/parenting couples, are recommended.

Effect of race and marital status on mothers' observed parenting and adolescent adjustment in youth with type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine demographic differences in parenting behaviors and adjustment in youth with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: Adolescents' psychosocial adjustment was assessed via self-reports and parent reports, and clinical data were obtained from adolescents' medical records. Mother-adolescent dyads (N = 93) engaged in a videotaped discussion task, which was coded for observed parenting behaviors. RESULTS: Single and non-White mothers exhibited significantly more overinvolved and less collaborative parenting behaviors. Higher levels of overinvolved parenting and lower levels of collaborative parenting were associated with poorer adolescent adjustment (i.e., higher levels of externalizing problems). Observed parenting was not significantly associated with glycemic control. There was an indirect effect of marital status and race/ethnicity on externalizing behaviors through parenting. CONCLUSIONS: The current study highlights parenting as a potential target for interventions, especially in single and minority mothers, to improve adjustment in this population.

Observed macro- and micro-level parenting behaviors during preadolescent family interactions as predictors of adjustment in emerging adults with and without spina bifida.

OBJECTIVE: To examine observed autonomy-promoting and -inhibiting parenting behaviors during preadolescence as predictors of adjustment outcomes in emerging adults with and without spina bifida (SB). METHODS: Demographic and videotaped interaction data were collected from families with 8/9-year-old children with SB (n = 68) and a matched group of typically developing youth (n = 68). Observed interaction data were coded with macro- and micro-coding schemes. Measures of emerging adulthood adjustment were collected 10 years later (ages 18/19 years; n = 50 and n = 60 for SB and comparison groups, respectively). RESULTS: Autonomy-promoting (behavioral control, autonomy-relatedness) and -inhibiting (psychological control) observed preadolescent parenting behaviors prospectively predicted emerging adulthood adjustment, particularly within educational, social, and emotional domains. Interestingly, high parent undermining of relatedness predicted better educational and social adjustment in the SB sample CONCLUSIONS: Parenting behaviors related to autonomy have long-term consequences for adjustment in emerging adults with and without SB.

Observed differences in social behaviors exhibited in peer interactions between youth with spina bifida and their peers: neuropsychological correlates.

OBJECTIVE: To identify differences in social behaviors in observed peer interactions between children with spina bifida (SB) and peers, and to examine neuropsychological correlates of these differences. METHOD: A total of 100 youth (aged 8-15 years) with SB and peers participated in video-recorded interaction tasks, which were coded for interaction style, affect, and collaboration. Children with SB also completed a neuropsychological test battery. RESULTS: Children with SB demonstrated less adaptive social behaviors in peer interactions, particularly within the interaction style domain. Observational items found to be different between children with SB and their peers were best predicted by social language and attention abilities. CONCLUSIONS: Children with SB exhibit a less adaptive interaction style and lower levels of social dominance but are comparable with typically developing peers on other social behaviors. The observed group differences may have a neuropsychological basis.

A critical ethnography of communication processes involving the management of oral chemotherapeutic agents by patients with a primary diagnosis of colorectal cancer: study protocol.

AIM: To describe the protocol used to examine the processes of communication between health professionals, patients and informal carers during the management of oral chemotherapeutic medicines to identify factors that promote or inhibit medicine concordance. BACKGROUND: Ideally communication practices about oral medicines should incorporate shared decision-making, two-way dialogue and an equality of role between practitioner and patient. While there is evidence that healthcare professionals are adopting these concordant elements in general practice there are still some patients who have a passive role during consultations. Considering oral chemotherapeutic medications, there is a paucity of research about communication practices which is surprising given the high risk of toxicity associated with chemotherapy. DESIGN: A critical ethnographic design will be used, incorporating non-participant observations, individual semi-structured and focus-group interviews as several collecting methods. METHODS: Observations will be carried out on the interactions between healthcare professionals (physicians, nurses and pharmacists) and patients in the outpatient departments where prescriptions are explained and supplied and on follow-up consultations where treatment regimens are monitored. Interviews will be conducted with patients and their informal carers. Focus-groups will be carried out with healthcare professionals at the conclusion of the study. These several will be analysed using thematic analysis. This research is funded by the Department for Employment and Learning in Northern Ireland (Awarded February 2012). DISCUSSION: Dissemination of these findings will contribute to the understanding of issues involved when communicating with people about oral chemotherapy. It is anticipated that findings will inform education, practice and policy.

Influences on the use of observational methods by practitioners when identifying risk factors in physical work.

Most observational methods for musculoskeletal disorder risk assessment have been developed by researchers to be applied in specific situations, and practitioners could find difficulties in their use in real-work conditions. The main objective of this study was to identify the factors which have an influence on how useful the observational techniques are perceived to be by practitioners and to what extent these factors influence their perception. A survey was conducted on practitioners regarding the problems normally encountered when implementing these methods, as well as the perceived overall utility of these techniques. The results show that practitioners place particular importance on the support the methods provide in making decisions regarding changes in work systems and how applicable they are to different types of jobs. The results of this study can serve as guide to researchers for the development of new assessment techniques that are more useful and applicable in real-work situations.

Observation of Early Social Interactions in Sibling Dyads: A Systematic Review.

Sibling relationships provide unique social experiences that can vary across the lifespan. Early sibling social interactions (ESSI) have been associated with children's own relationship and developmental outcomes, highlighting the essential role that sibling encounters play, even from a young age. Understanding how these social exchanges occur and unfold and the range of opportunities they provide can shed light on critical aspects of early childhood development and family life. However, the methodological approach used in studying ESSI can influence our understanding of these early experiences. This systematic review aims to delineate the methodological framework adopted in observational studies of ESSI. Through a systematic search of psychology and domain-general databases until March 2023, we focused on studies that addressed bidirectional naturalistic interactions in young sibling dyads (at least one child aged 0-36 months). Of the 713 articles screened, only 63 met the inclusion criteria. Findings regarding three main issues are examined, including sample characteristics, study designs and procedures, and sibling interactive behaviours targeted. Previous research has focused on a diverse range of sibling behavioral exchanges, including cues of children's social skills and relationship quality within mainly ecological contexts. However, limitations in representativeness and standardization have been identified. Future studies should incorporate sequential analyses to fully comprehend the interactive nature of early sibling social encounters.

TIAP: an observational procedure for assessing family relationships: a clinical case from the parenting evaluation context.

TIAP is an observational procedure to assess family functioning detecting simultaneously the role of each participant and the interdependence of relational behaviors. In particular, the procedure requires family members to play according to different interactive configurations (parent1-children; parent2-children, all together, children and parents as separate units) and therefore different microtransitions from one configuration to another. As such, the procedure allows to study how family members coordinate to maintain stability, promote change, and encourage members to explore different interactive configurations within the family system. TIAP has been validated through several studies conducted with different non-clinical groups of families that have highlighted the salient aspects of family functioning, and significant correlations with variables external to the family system, such as children's social-emotional competence in the educational context. This paper focuses on the use of TIAP in the contexts of assessing parental competence. Specifically, the article aims to describe, through the reference to a clinical case, the results emerged from a study conducted with 33 families involved in a parenting assessment process. The study is part of a broader collaborative project between the Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Clinic of the Italian National Health Service in Parma, the University of Parma, and the Bologna Family Therapy Center. TIAP was administered to all the families involved as a complement to other tools routinely used for all cases handled by the professionals of the clinic. The coding system includes different indices. Some analyze the interactive family modes: family coordination (mutual attention and responsiveness), the responses to potentials for change (disregard, absorption, amplification), and intra-familiar exploration. Other indices concern the quality of the interactions: the relational triadic dynamic of microtransition (detaching-entrusting-welcoming-joining) and the consistency/inconsistency of the communication channels. The results highlighted how TIAP makes it possible to identify the specific interactive modalities of the different members and their interdependence and reciprocity, favoring the identification of both family weaknesses and family resources, including the children's contribution. Furthermore, the general data trend showed that TIAP indices detect some important prognostic elements capable of guiding the court's decisions.

Measuring the Effect of an Ergonomic Lecture on the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment Scores of Dental Assistant Students Using Inertial Sensor-Based Motion Capture-A Randomized Controlled Study.

Individuals working in the field of dentistry have a high prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) owing to monotonous and one-sided physical exertion. Inertial measurement units (IMU) are increasingly shifting into focus for assessing postural risk at work. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of an ergonomic lecture and training intervention on postural risk and MSDs in dental assistant students using inertial sensor-based motion capture (MoCap). Eighteen female dental assistant students (age: 19.44 ± 6.83 years; height: 164.59 ± 5.32 cm; weight: 64.88 ± 16.52 kg; BMI: 19.70 ± 4.89 kg/m2), randomly divided into intervention (n = 9) and control (n = 9) groups, participated in the present study. The participants completed the Nordic Questionnaire on MSD prevalence, after which a 90 s MoCap with Xsens IMU was performed. A lecture on ergonomics was provided, followed by a five-week intervention for the intervention group. Follow-up assessments were performed, and 5- and 18-week follow-up MSD questionnaires were administered. Mixed analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed a significant difference in the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) and part-scores of the upper arm and wrist. Despite a reduction in MSDs, no significant differences in the time of measurement and groups were detected after the five-week training intervention and the 18-week follow-up questionnaire. A targeted ergonomics lecture was effective for dental assistant students, and technologies such as IMU improved workplace ergonomics in dentists. Further studies with a longer measurement periods, follow-up, and larger sample sizes are recommended.

Observational Methods in Studies of Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Twenty-Year Retrospective Review.

This narrative review describes the observational approaches used to study infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) published between 2001 and 2021. Articles were included in this narrative review if they were (1) original peer-reviewed articles published in English in PubMed and Web of Science; (2) published between 1 January 2001, and 31 December 2021; (3) conducted in an LMIC; and (4) employed observations and focused on IYCF practices among children aged 6-59 months. The studies (n = 51) revealed a wide-ranging application of direct meal and full-day observations, as well as indirect spot checks, to study IYCF. The findings revealed that meal observations were typically conducted during a midday meal using precise recording approaches such as video and aimed to understand child-caregiver interactions or specialized nutritious food (SNF) usage. Conversely, full-day observations lasted between 6 and 12 h and often used a field notes-based recording approach. Behaviors occurring outside of mealtime, such as snacking or interhousehold food sharing, were also a primary focus. Finally, spot checks were conducted to indirectly assess SNF compliance during both announced and unannounced visits. This review highlights the adaptability of observations across contexts and their versatility when used as a primary data collection tool to help monitor and evaluate nutrition programs.

A practical guide to the study of social relationships.

Behavioral ecologists have devoted considerable effort to identifying the sources of variation in individual reproductive success. Much of this work has focused on the characteristics of individuals, such as their sex and rank. However, many animals live in stable social groups and the fitness of individuals depends at least in part on the outcome of their interactions with other group members. For example, in many primate species, high dominance rank enhances access to resources and reproductive success. The ability to acquire and maintain high rank often depends on the availability and effectiveness of coalitionary support. Allies may be cultivated and coalitions may be reinforced by affiliative interactions such as grooming, food sharing, and tolerance. These findings suggest that if we want to understand the selective pressures that shape the social behavior of primates, it will be profitable to broaden our focus from the characteristics of individuals to the properties of the relationships that they form with others. The goal of this paper is to discuss a set of methods that can be used to quantify the properties of social relationships.

Pedestrians' unsafe road-crossing behaviors in Iran: An observational-based study in West Azerbaijan.

OBJECTIVE: Pedestrians are one of the most vulnerable users in road traffic injuries (RTIs). The rate of pedestrians' fatality is high in Iran. It is worthwhile to investigate how pedestrians behave. This observational study aimed to investigate pedestrians' unsafe behaviors while crossing. METHODS: This cross-sectional study examined the behavior of 1095 pedestrians (69.7% men) using videotaping when they crossed at two intersections and three non-intersections on a weekend and two working days in the morning, at noon, and in the evening. The information obtained was classified into 5 domains including adherence to traffic rule, violation, environmental barriers, visibility, and distraction. Data were analyzed using Stata version 17. RESULTS: About 60% of the pedestrians ignored the crosswalk and crossed the street wherever they wanted. More than 30% ignored the vehicles passing and crossed the street inattentively. About 60% of the pedestrians committed violations. More than half of pedestrians crossed unsafe crossings diagonally or in a hurry. More than 35% wore dark clothing and had low visibility, and nearly 30% were distracted. Adolescent pedestrians did not adhere traffic rules about 6 times more than the young adult pedestrians. Pedestrians who did not adhere to traffic rules in the morning were significantly more than in the evening. Men committed a violation 1.47 times more than women. The results showed that the pedestrians committed a violation in the morning significantly more than in the evening. CONCLUSION: The occurrence of pedestrians' unsafe behaviors in Maku was high. Unsafe behaviors were high among men and young adult pedestrians. Therefore, it's essential to implement educational interventions via different media as well as environmental interventions by different organizations to improve safe behavior among pedestrians.