Family-level moderators of daily associations between discrimination and distress among Mexican-origin youth.

The current study evaluated cultural values and family processes that may moderate associations between daily racial-ethnic discrimination and distress among Mexican-origin youth. Integrating micro-time (daily diary) and macro-time (longitudinal survey) research design features, we examined familism, family cohesion, and ethnic-racial socialization from youth-, mother-, and father- reports as potential buffers of daily associations between youth racial-ethnic discrimination and youth distress (negative affect and anger). The analytic sample, drawn from the Seguimos Avanzando study, included 317 Mexican-origin adolescents (Mage = 13.5 years) and their parents, recruited from the Midwestern United States. Results indicated that youth-reported familism and family cohesion significantly buffered daily associations between youth racial-ethnic discrimination and youth distress. In contrast, parent-reported familism and family cohesion and some aspects of ethnic-racial socialization exacerbated the discrimination to distress link. The implications of these results are discussed to inform efforts supporting the healthy development of Mexican-origin youth and their families.

Conversations about race in Black and White US families: Before and after George Floyd's death.

Research has shown that Black parents are more likely than White parents to have conversations about race with their children, but few studies have directly compared the frequency and content of these conversations and how they change in response to national events. Here we examine such conversations in the United States before and after the killing of George Floyd. Black parents had conversations more often than White parents, and they had more frequent conversations post-Floyd. White parents remained mostly unchanged and, if anything, were less likely to talk about being White and more likely to send colorblind messages. Black parents were also more worried than White parents-both that their children would experience racial bias and that their children would perpetrate racial bias, a finding that held both pre- and post-Floyd. Thus, even in the midst of a national moment on race, White parents remained relatively silent and unconcerned about the topic.

Proactive coping with discrimination: A mediator between ethnic-racial socialization and Latinx youth's internalizing symptoms.

There is a dearth of knowledge in the coping literature on how minoritized youth cope with racism-related stressors and the predictors of effective coping responses. This two-wave study examined the direct and indirect effects of ethnic-racial socialization on depressive and anxiety symptoms via proactive coping with discrimination in a community sample of 135 Latinx adolescents (Mage = 16, SD = 1.27; 59% female). Results indicate that cultural socialization was related to higher use of proactive coping with discrimination 6 months later, which in turn, was related to fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms. There were no direct or indirect effects between preparation for bias and mental health outcomes.

Ethnic-racial discrimination and socialization: Short-term longitudinal effects on Black and Latinx young adults' ethnic-racial identity.

Short-term longitudinal data were used to examine how racial discrimination, cultural socialization (CS), and preparation for bias (PB) related to Black and Latinx young adults' public and private regard. Black (n = 90) and Latinx (n = 54) young adults (Mage = 20 years) were assessed at two time points, 6 weeks apart. Racial discrimination predicted lower levels of public regard 6 week later; whereas PB predicted greater levels of private regard. CS moderated the relations between racial discrimination and private regard suggesting that at low levels of CS, discrimination related to lower private regard 6 weeks later. Findings demonstrate the short-term effects of racial discrimination and suggest that ethnic-racial socialization is a salient cultural resource for young adults.

Parenting in African American families: Profiles of general and culturally specific dimensions of parent-adolescent relationships during late adolescence.

Developmental and parenting frameworks suggest that factors at the individual-level and multiple levels of adolescents' contexts are important determinants of how African American parents prepare their children to live in a racially stratified society. Using a person-centered approach, this study explored heterogeneity in profiles of African American parent-adolescent relationships (PARs) using indicators of parent-reported ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, preparation for bias), general parenting practices (autonomy support, monitoring, behavioral control), and relationship quality (warmth, communication, conflict). We also examined how adolescents' characteristics, parents' personal and psychological resources, and contextual sources of stress and support contributed to profile membership. Data were from the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study (1991-2000) and consisted of 589 African American caregiver-adolescent dyads (caregivers: 89% female; 57.2% married; adolescents: 50.7% female; Mage = 17, SD = 0.64, range = 15-19 years old). Latent profile analysis revealed four profiles: (a) No-Nonsense High Socializers, (b) Indulgent Average Socializers, (c) Unengaged Silent Socializers, and (d) Authoritative Cultural Socializers. Adolescent characteristics (gender, depression, and problem behavior), parents' personal and psychological resources (parenting self-efficacy, centrality, private regard, and depression), and contextual sources of stress and support (stress: economic hardship, family stress, neighborhood disadvantage and support: marital status, family cohesion, family organization) were correlated with profile membership. Findings suggest that variability in African American PARs is shaped by an extensive set of individual and contextual factors related to adolescents and the family and neighborhood context. These findings have important implications for future research and how to target multiple potential levers for change in African American parenting practice.

Black mothers' ethnic-racial socialization one year after highly publicized anti-Black murders during the pandemic.

Although research on ethnic-racial socialization is well established, limited studies have examined the influence of specific, highly publicized anti-Black murders. We assessed Black mothers' (N = 12, mean age = 37.45) concerns and ethnic-racial socialization with adolescents aged 11-18 years old approximately 1 year following the murders of George Floyd and other unarmed Black people. Researchers generated the following themes using reflexive thematic analysis: protecting adolescents from physical harm; protecting adolescents from psychological harm; parents' emotional distress; and parents' lack of confidence in their ethnic-racial socialization practices. Black mothers exhibit exceptional amounts of strength and courage as they navigate pervasive physical and psychological threats to their adolescents while experiencing worry and low confidence in their ability to socialize their adolescents about anti-Black racism.

Directionality explored: Black Adolescents' awareness of systemic racism and race-based experiences.

Increases in conversations about race and racial discrimination experiences during adolescence make this a critical developmental period to investigate adolescents' awareness of racism. We examined bidirectional associations between race-based experiences and awareness of systemic racism-operationalized as understanding systemic causes of racial disparities in education. Adolescents who self-identified as African American/Black were surveyed in Grade 6 (n = 317; Mage = 11.12; 48% girls) and Grade 8 (n = 247; Mage = 13.15; 56% girls). Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that racial barrier messages, but not racial discrimination experiences, in Grade 6 positively predicted awareness of systemic racism in Grade 8. Adolescents' awareness of systemic racism in Grade 6 did not predict racial socialization or racial discrimination experiences in Grade 8.

Ethnic-Racial Socialization, Teacher Discrimination, and Black Youth's School Engagement and Achievement.

Ethnic-racial socialization is one strategy Black parents use to support their children's school engagement and academic achievement given the occurrence and toxic effects of discrimination. Egalitarianism and preparation for bias socialization messages have yielded mixed evidence of promotive and protective effects for Black youth's school outcomes, and effects may vary according to ethnicity. Thus, this research examined associations between ethnic-racial socialization messages and school engagement and achievement, and whether these messages protected against teacher discrimination effects on academic achievement transmitted through school engagement, among a nationally representative sample of Black adolescents who participated in the National Survey of American Life Adolescent supplement study. Ethnic-racial socialization message content and the frequency of communication about race demonstrated different associations with engagement (i.e., school bonding, aspiration-expectation discrepancy, and disciplinary actions) and achievement (i.e., grades) for African American and Caribbean Black youth. However, the benefits were not sufficient to combat the adverse effects of teacher discrimination on school engagement and, in turn, achievement. These findings highlight the utility of integrating ethnic-racial socialization into prevention programs to support Black youth's school experiences; demonstrate the importance of attention to heterogeneity within Black youth; and underscore the critical need for prevention programs to address teacher discrimination.

Substance Use Among African American College Students: Testing the Theory of African American Offending.

BACKGROUND:  General criminological theories contend that African Americans' substance use is due to overexposure to criminological risk factors. However, some scholars suggest that racial injustices (i.e., racial discrimination and criminal justice injustices) and racial socialization practices, which includes religiosity (church involvement), impact African American substance use. OBJECTIVE:  Drawing on Unnever and Gabbidon's theory of African American offending, which considers racial injustices and racial socialization when explaining African American offending, the current research examined African American college students' substance use behavior. METHODS:  African American college students (n = 131) completed an online and anonymous survey measuring substance use, criminal justice injustices, racial discrimination, racial socialization, religiosity, negative emotions, and school bonds. RESULTS:  African American college students who reported marijuana use had less confidence in the police and those who engaged in heavy/binge drinking reported more negative emotions and negative encounters with the police. Additionally, negative police encounters and racial socialization practices increased the odds of heavy/binge drinking, whereas religiosity decreased the odds of heavy/binge drinking. CONCLUSION:  These results suggest that a relationship exists among criminal justice injustices, perceived racial bias, racial socialization, religiosity, and African American college students' substance use. As such, the current research provides partial support for the Theory of African American Offending while demonstrating the need to consider racial experiences when examining African American substance use.

Critical consciousness and anti-racist action as rooted in family processes.

Racially ethnically marginalized communities in the United States are exposed to structural and interpersonal forms of racism that have harmful effects on their health, wealth, education, and employment (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Racism and Health. https://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/racism-disparities/index.html, 2021). Although a plethora of research exists outlining these harmful effects, research examining how youth from diverse backgrounds effectively combat racism is lacking. Emerging research demonstrates that families may play a key role in the development of critical consciousness and participation in anti-racist actions (Bañales et al., Journal of Social Issues, 2021, 77, 964; Blanco Martinez et al., American Journal of Community Psychology, 2022, 70, 278; Lozada et al., Journal of Black Psychology, 2017, 43, 493). Yet, many key family processes have not been examined in relation to youth development of anti-racist practices. The current study included a sample of 327 racially ethnically diverse emerging adults (Mage = 18.80, SD = 1.28, range = 18-25), and explored the association between ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, preparation for bias) and youth critical consciousness (reflection, motivation, action) and anti-racist (interpersonal, communal, political change) actions, and how familism values impact these associations. Results found that ethnic-racial socialization was positively associated with all aspects of critical consciousness and anti-racist actions. Results also found that familism significantly interacted with ethnic-racial socialization to predict some aspects of critical consciousness and anti-racist actions, but not others. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.

Friendship Network and School Socialization Correlates of Adolescent Ethnic-Racial Identity Development.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development is consequential for youth adjustment and includes exploration, resolution, and affect about the meaning of one's ethnic-racial group membership. Little is known about how identity-relevant experiences, such as ethnic-racial socialization and discrimination in peer relationships and school contexts, catalyze adolescent ERI development. The present study examines how identity-relevant experiences in friend and school contexts (i.e., proportion of same-ethnoracial friends, cultural socialization among friends, friends' ERI dimensions, friends' experiences of ethnoracial discrimination, and school promotion of cultural competence and critical consciousness) are associated with ERI development. A multivariate path model with a sample from four southwestern U.S. schools (N = 717; 50.5% girls; Mage = 13.76; 32% Latinx, 31.5% Multiethnic, 25.7% White, 11% other) was used to test these associations. Findings showed that friend and school predictors of ERI did not differ between early and middle adolescents, but significant differences and similarities emerged in some of these associations between ethnoracially minoritized and White youth. Specifically, friend cultural socialization was positively associated with ERI exploration for ethnoracially minoritized youth only, whereas school critical consciousness socialization was positively linked with ERI exploration only for White youth. Friend cultural socialization and friend network's levels of ERI resolution were positively associated with ERI resolution across both ethnoracial groups. These friend and school socialization associations were documented above and beyond significant contributions of personal ethnoracial discrimination to ERI exploration and negative affect for both ethnoracially minoritized and White youth. These findings expand our understanding of how friend and school socialization mechanisms are associated with adolescent ERI development, which is vital to advancing developmental theory and fostering developmental competences for youth to navigate their multicultural yet socially stratified and inequitable world.

The Influence of Racial Socialization, Mentor Support, and Emotion Regulation on the Psychological Well-Being of African American Boys.

Although it is well-documented that school-based racial discrimination can have adverse effects on African American adolescents, the understanding of how socio-emotional factors can act as safeguards is still limited. This study explores whether emotion regulation, mentor support, and parent racial socialization help African American boys cope with school-based racial discrimination. Factors such as emotion regulation are internal assets, while mentor support and parent racial socialization are external resources. Four hundred and eighty-seven African American boys aged 12 to 18 (M = 14.33; SD = 1.62) participated. School-based racial discrimination correlated negatively with psychological well-being. Only emotion regulation and parental racial socialization were related to positive psychological well-being. However, mentor support buffered against the negative impacts of school-based racial discrimination on psychological well-being. These results underscore the significance of assets and resources in bolstering African American boys' resilience against school-based racial discrimination, with implications for interventions and future research.

Ethnic-Racial Socialization of White Children by White Parents: A Systematic Review.

This systematic review of the literature examined the extent and nature of white parent's ethic-racial socialization (ERS) of white children, the factors associated with white parents' ERS, and the child outcomes of white parents' ERS. It followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The review included 43 English-language works published between January 2000 and June 2021 and referenced in PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, or Sociological Abstracts. It showed that white parents are engaged in ERS, employing many of the same strategies identified in research with parents of color as well as strategies identified as specific to white families. The review revealed child and parent factors related to ERS and child outcomes of ERS, including racial attitudes. In contrast with parents of color's ERS, white parents' ERS tends to teach strategies of advantage, preparing children to maintain their privilege. We offer recommendations for practice and future research.

Development of the Culturally Affirming and Responsive Experiences (CARE) Measure: Observing Responsiveness and Ethnic-Racial Cultural Socialization in Mother-Child Interactions.

The existing literature on the importance of maternal responsiveness and the growing body of literature supporting early ethnic-racial cultural socialization highlight the need for an observational measure of how they co-occur during mother-child interactions. This study presents the development and initial validation of the Culturally Affirming and Responsive Experiences (CARE) measure, an observational measure of the presence and quality of responsiveness and ethnic-racial cultural socialization within early mother-child interactions. Pilot study results with 103 racially and ethnically diverse mother-child dyads demonstrated initial reliability and validity of the CARE measure. Implications of applying the CARE measure to early mother-child interactions to assess quality of responsiveness and ethnic-racial cultural socializations are discussed.

Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Resilience Factors in African American Youth Mental Health.

Racism constitutes a significant risk to the mental health of African American children, adolescents, and emerging adults. This review evaluates recent literature examining ethnic and racial identity, ethnic-racial socialization, religiosity and spirituality, and family and parenting as racial, ethnic, and cultural resilience factors that shape the impact of racism on youth mental health. Representative studies, purported mechanisms, and critiques of prior research are presented for each factor. Recent studies of racism and resilience revisit foundational resilience factors from prior research while reflecting new and important advances (e.g., consideration of gender, cultural context, structural racism), providing important insights for the development of prevention and intervention efforts and policy that can alleviate mental health suffering and promote health and mental health equity for African American youth.

Preparing Black and Latinx children for police encounters: Caregiver response profiles and child self-regulation.

We hypothesized that the goodness-of-fit between profiles of observed, caregiver-provided ethnic-racial socialization (ERS), and child self-regulation (i.e., inhibitory control) would differentially associate with child behavioral outcomes. Conversations between 80 caregivers (45% Latinx; 55% Black) and their children (M age  = 11.09; 46% female) were rated for ERS. Measures included an inhibitory control composite (ages 2.5-3.5) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; age 12). Three profiles were determined: Comprehensive (n  = 34), Reactive (n  = 8), and Pragmatic (n  = 38). Only youth with low inhibitory control in preschool appeared to benefit from Pragmatic ERS, whereas youth with normative or high inhibitory control in early childhood displayed lower internalizing and externalizing behaviors when they had Comprehensive or Reactive rather than Pragmatic caregivers.

The Multiracial-Black Socialization Model: Conceptualizing racial socialization in Multiracial-Black families.

Scholars have spent the last four decades expanding the theoretical understanding of parental racial socialization-or parent-child communication about race. What is largely absent from existing conceptualizations, however, is a consideration for how the practice manifests in Multiracial families. The interracial structure of Multiracial families complicates racial socialization in ways that are not being captured in empirical research due to the overreliance on universal frameworks. It is imperative that we close this theoretical gap as the proportion of Multiracial families in the United States is expanding at record rates. Accordingly, we present the Multiracial-Black Socialization Model (MRB-SM) in this paper. The MRB-SM is designed explicitly for Multiracial-Black families, one of the fastest-growing sub-groups of Multiracial families. The model builds upon the strengths of universal socialization theories by outlining the content, process, and context components of racial socialization in Multiracial-Black families. The implications for research are discussed.

Patterns of Observed Dyadic Ethnic-Racial Socialization among Black and Latinx Families in Response to a Hypothetical Experience of Discrimination at School.

Ethnic-racial socialization has primarily been examined as a unidirectional, caregiver-directed process. Instead, applying the Theory of Racial Socialization in Action (Smith-Bynum, 2023), the current study observed caregiver-youth conversations about a hypothetical discriminatory experience at school for patterns of dyadic ethnic-racial socialization. Participants were 353 Black (39.7%), Latinx (47.3%), and multiracial/ethnic (13%) pre-adolescents (Mage = 11.19, SD = 0.43; 45.3% female) and their caregivers (94% mothers) with low income from Dallas, Texas. Five subgroups of dyads were identified (High Dyadic Engagement, Parent-Led, Justice Salient Advocates, Child-Dominant and Low Dyadic Engagement) that differed by demographic characteristics of the dyads (e.g., race/ethnicity, caregiver education). Observing ethnic-racial socialization in action with dyads could improve the delivery of interventions to better meet the needs of families.

Lessons of Resistance from Black Mothers to their Black Sons.

In negotiating the anti-Black oppression, Black mothers communicate lessons of resistance in their racial socialization messages to their Black adolescent boys. We investigate whether distinct strategies of resistance for survival, characterized by individual-focused immediate strategies of resistance, and resistance for liberation, strategies of resistance that disrupt systems of anti-Black oppression rooted in furthering collective Black empowerment, are employed in Black mothers' messages to their sons. In this manuscript, we use longitudinal data of Black mothers' of adolescent boys interviews (N = 31) across three time points (6th-11th grade). Our findings indicate the presence of various strategies of resistance for survival and resistance for liberation within Black mothers' preparation for bias socialization.

White Families' Communications About and Around Race: Conversations Between white Adolescents and Their Mothers.

Though there is substantial research on racial socialization in families of color, there is less on such socialization in white families. To investigate racial socialization in white families, the current study analyzed mixed-methods data from 46 mother-adolescent dyads. Though white parents and their adolescent children largely claimed to not talk about race, they in fact communicated about and around race through various strategies that in effect, maintained white privilege and failed to challenge systems of racial oppression. Very few families in our sample discussed racial discrimination or white privilege, and fewer rooted both at the systems level. Our results highlight situations that prompt conversations about race as well as the ways white families talk about and around race and white privilege.