White matter plasticity during second language learning within and across hemispheres.

Adult second language (L2) learning is a challenging enterprise inducing neuroplastic changes in the human brain. However, it remains unclear how the structural language connectome and its subnetworks change during adult L2 learning. The current study investigated longitudinal changes in white matter (WM) language networks in each hemisphere, as well as their interconnection, in a large group of Arabic-speaking adults who learned German intensively for 6 mo. We found a significant increase in WM-connectivity within bilateral temporal-parietal semantic and phonological subnetworks and right temporal-frontal pathways mainly in the second half of the learning period. At the same time, WM-connectivity between the two hemispheres decreased significantly. Crucially, these changes in WM-connectivity are correlated with L2 performance. The observed changes in subnetworks of the two hemispheres suggest a network reconfiguration due to lexical learning. The reduced interhemispheric connectivity may indicate a key role of the corpus callosum in L2 learning by reducing the inhibition of the language-dominant left hemisphere. Our study highlights the dynamic changes within and across hemispheres in adult language-related networks driven by L2 learning.

Neural signatures of second language proficiency in narrative processing.

Making sense of speech in a second language relies on multiple abilities. Differences in brain activity related to proficiency in language tasks have often been attributed to processing demands. However, during naturalistic narrative comprehension, listeners at different proficiency levels may form different representations of the same speech. We hypothesized that the intersubject synchronization of these representations could be used to measure second-language proficiency. Using a searchlight-shared response model, we found highly proficient participants showed synchronization in regions similar to those of native speakers, including in the default mode network and the lateral prefrontal cortex. In contrast, participants with low proficiency showed more synchronization in auditory cortex and word-level semantic processing areas in the temporal lobe. Moderate proficiency showed the greatest neural diversity, suggesting lower consistency in the source of this partial proficiency. Based on these synchronization differences, we were able to classify the proficiency level or predict behavioral performance on an independent English test in held-out participants, suggesting the identified neural systems represented proficiency-sensitive information that was generalizable to other individuals. These findings suggest higher second-language proficiency leads to more native-like neural processing of naturalistic language, including in systems beyond the cognitive control network or the core language network.

Interhemispheric functional brain connectivity predicts new language learning success in adults.

Investigating interhemispheric interactions between homologous cortical regions during language processing is of interest. Despite prevalent left hemisphere lateralization of language, the right hemisphere also plays an important role and interhemispheric connectivity is influenced by language experience and is implicated in second language (L2) acquisition. Regions involved in language processing have differential connectivity to other cortical regions and to each other, and play specific roles in language. We examined the interhemispheric interactions of subregions of the inferior frontal gyrus (areas 44 and 45), the adjacent area 9/46v in the middle frontal gyrus, the superior temporal gyrus (STG), and the posterior inferior parietal lobule (pIPL) in relation to distinct and specific aspects of L2 learning success. The results indicated that the connectivity between left and right areas 44 and 9/46v predicted improvement in sentence repetition, connectivity between left and right area 45 and mid-STG predicted improvement in auditory comprehension, and connectivity between left and right pIPL predicted improvement in reading speed. We show interhemispheric interactions in the specific context of facilitating performance in adult L2 acquisition that follow an anterior to posterior gradient in the brain, and are consistent with the respective roles of these regions in language processing.

Contribution of orthography to vocabulary acquisition in a second language: Evidence of an early word-learning advantage in elementary-school children.

Recent studies have shown that children benefit from orthography when learning new words. This orthographic facilitation can be explained by the fact that written language acts as an anchor device due to the transient nature of spoken language. There is also a close and reciprocal relationship between spoken and written language. Second-language word learning poses specific challenges in terms of orthography-phonology mappings that do not fully overlap with first-language mappings. The current study aimed to investigate whether orthographic information facilitates second-language word learning in developing readers, namely third and fifth graders. In a first experiment French children learned 16 German words, and in a second experiment they learned 24 German words. Word learning was assessed by picture designation, spoken word recognition, and orthographic choice. In both experiments, orthographic facilitation was found in both less and more advanced readers. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Awake targeted memory reactivation doesn't work.

Memories are pliable and can be biased by post-encoding information. In targeted memory reactivation (TMR) studies, participants encode information then sleep, during which time sounds or scents that were previously associated with the encoded images are re-presented in an effort to trigger reactivation of the associated memory traces. Upon subsequent testing, memory for reactivated items is often enhanced. Is sleep essential for this process? The literature on awake TMR is small and findings are mixed. Here, we asked English-speaking adults to learn Japanese vocabulary words. During a subsequent active rest phase, participants played Tetris while sound cues associated with the vocabulary words were presented. Results showed that when memories were reactivated, they were either disrupted (Experiment 1) or unaffected (Experiments 2, 3). These findings indicate that awake TMR is not beneficial, and may actually impair subsequent memory. These findings have important implications for research on memory consolidation and reactivation.

Toward mastering foreign-language translations: transfer between productive and receptive learning.

Learners can study foreign language-English vocabulary (e.g., denken - to think) both receptively and productively. Receptive learning involves being cued with a foreign language word (e.g., denken) and trying to translate it (i.e., to think). Productive learning involves being cued with an English word (e.g., to think) and trying to produce the translation. When students use retrieval practice to learn foreign-language translations in one direction (e.g., receptively) until they correctly recall the translation, do they demonstrate transfer in the other direction (i.e., productively)? Across three experiments, we answered this question by manipulating the order of learning schedule (reception first followed by production or vice versa). For a given schedule, participants continued to practice retrieving translations (with feedback) using the dropout method until they correctly recalled each translation three times; they then proceeded to practice the pairs in the opposite direction until they correctly recalled each translation three times. Across all experiments, transfer was partial (learning in one direction did not entirely eliminate the need to practice in the other), but transfer did occur regardless of which schedule students used first during practice.

Examining the dimensionality of vocabulary in English as a second language in Chinese children.

This study compared a unidimensional model of vocabulary and a two-factor model comprising vocabulary breadth and depth in a second language (L2). A total of 167 Chinese Grade 4 and 5 primary school children (Meanage = 9.96 years old) learning English as an L2 participated in this study, and they were tested on four English vocabulary tests. Our results of confirmatory factor analyses indicate that vocabulary breadth and depth were not two distinct dimensions, and the unidimensional model was supported. Theoretical and practical implications were discussed.

Attitudes of Teachers toward Multilingualism, Heritage Language Maintenance, and Second Language Learning at School.

INTRODUCTION: Providing an adapted language input in a multicultural classroom is often challenging to educators. Teachers are frequently the parents' first contacts for language counseling and educational support, and therefore, they may influence the language exposure not only in the classroom but at home as well. This study aimed to investigate the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral attitudes of teachers toward multilingualism in Flanders. The effects of contextual teacher- and school-related properties on the attitudes of teachers were also considered. METHODS: An online survey questioning the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral attitudes of teachers was developed and distributed to all schools in Flanders. 710 preschool, primary, and secondary teachers completed the questionnaire. RESULTS: The results showed rather positive attitudes toward heritage language maintenance and multilingualism. However, there are still some misconceptions about multilingual language learning strategies. Teachers are interested in extra training, as they find it hard to use the languages of their pupils as a resource in their teaching practice. DISCUSSION: Teachers mostly consider multilingualism an added value. Supplementary training and extra advice given by speech-language therapists could be helpful to inform teachers about the importance of their students' proficiency in the heritage language and could give teachers insight into the principles of second language acquisition.

Effect of a Group-Based Narrative Language Training in Typically Developing Turkish-Dutch Children.

INTRODUCTION: Due to the heterogeneity in language trajectories and differences in language exposure, a lot of bilingual children could use some extra support for the acquisition of the school language to reduce the risk of language problems and learning difficulties. Enhancing bilingual children's narrative abilities in the school language could be an efficient approach to advance the general school language abilities as well. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether a narrative intervention could improve both general and narrative school language abilities of typically developing bilingual (Turkish-Dutch) children. METHODS: Nineteen Turkish-Dutch bilingual children (6-9.9 years) were enrolled in this single-arm early efficacy study. The intervention procedure was administered in the school language (Dutch) and based on a test-teach-retest principle with two baseline measurements. At baseline 1, the expressive, receptive, and narrative language abilities were determined. The second baseline measurement consisted of a second measurement of the narrative abilities. Subsequently, a weekly 1-h group-based intervention was implemented during 10 sessions. After the intervention phase, the expressive, receptive, and narrative language abilities were tested again. RESULTS: After the intervention, the children produced significantly more story structure elements compared to both baseline measurements. No significant differences were found for microstructure narrative measures. The participants had significantly higher scores on the expressive and receptive language measurements post-intervention. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that the intervention could be an efficient approach to stimulate the second language development of bilingual children.

Cognitive Fluency in L2: The Effect of Automatic and Controlled Lexical Processing on Speech Rate.

The fluency of second language (L2) speech can be influenced by L2 proficiency, but also by differences in the efficiency of cognitive operations and personal speaking styles. The nature of cognitive fluency is still, however, little understood. Therefore, we studied the cognitive fluency of Finnish advanced students of English (N = 64) to understand how the efficiency of cognitive processing influences speech rate. Cognitive fluency was operationalised as automaticity of lexical access (measured by rapid word recognition) and attention control (measured by the Stroop task). The tasks were conducted in both L1 (Finnish) and L2 (English) to examine the (dis)similarity of processing in the two languages. Speech rate in a monologue task was used as the dependent measure of speaking performance. The results showed that after controlling for the L1 speech rate and L1 cognitive fluency, the L2 attention control measures explained a small amount of additional variance in L2 speech rate. These results are discussed in relation to the cognitive fluency framework and general speaking proficiency research.

Shut-up Toys for Second Language Learners: Impact of Digital Media on Early Adolescents' Private Speech Production in Individual and Collaborative Tasks.

Researchers, parents, and policymakers from previous generations have recently expressed concern about the inevitable exposure of youngsters to digital media and its potentially detrimental effects on their development. Private speech is the overt audible self-talk people produce when engaged with challenging problem-solving tasks and is believed to aid in second language acquisition as reported (Vygotsky in Thought and language, MIT Press, 1962); (Winsler in Private Speech, Executive Functioning, and the Development of Verbal Self-Regulation, 2009). This qualitative case study explored private speech production in three young adolescents (two 11-year-olds and one 10-year-old) while completing an English as a foreign language task (Bingo! game) individually and collaboratively in physical and digital modes. Patterns of participants' private speech markers emerged from a thematic analysis of the transcribed oral interactions during eight sessions. The frequency of occurrence of the participants' private speech markers was reported and interpreted based on the emergent typology to compare collaborative and individual task completion in physical and digital modes. Regardless of the individual or collaborative nature of the task, private speech use decreased during the digital version of the game. However, collaborative tasks evoked more private speech from the participants regardless of modality. The findings of the study suggest digital media usage is likely to hinder private speech production for self-regulatory purposes in young adolescents, even in collaboration with peers.

Effects of Lexical Properties in L2 Chinese Compound Processing: A Multivariate Approach.

Previous studies on L2 (i.e., second language) Chinese compound processing have focused on the relative efficiency of two routes: holistic processing versus combinatorial processing. However, it is still unclear whether Chinese compounds are processed with multilevel representations among L2 learners due to the hierarchical structure of the characters. Therefore, taking a multivariate approach, the present study evaluated the relative influence and importance of different grain sizes of lexical information in an L2 Chinese two-character compound decision task. Results of supervised component generalized linear regression models with random forests analysis revealed that the orthographic, phonological and semantic information all contributed to L2 compound processing, but the L2 learners used more orthographic processing strategies and fewer phonological processing strategies compared to the native speakers. Specifically, the orthographic information was activated at the whole-word, the character and the radical levels in orthographic processing, and the phonological information at the whole-word, the syllable, and the phoneme levels all exerted contributions in phonological processing. Furthermore, the semantic information of the whole words and the constituents was accessed in semantic processing. These findings together suggest that the L2 learners are able to use cues at all levels simultaneously to process Chinese compound words, supporting a multi-route model with a hierarchical morphological structure in such processing.

Discrimination of Second Language Vowel Contrasts and the Role of Phonological Short-Term Memory and Nonverbal Intelligence.

Although extensive research has focused on the perceptual abilities of second language (L2) learners, a significant gap persists in understanding how cognitive functions like phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and nonverbal intelligence (IQ) impact L2 speech perception. This study sets out to investigate the discrimination of L2 English monophthongal vowel contrasts and to assess the effect of PSTM and nonverbal IQ on L2 speech perception. The participants consisted of adult monolingually-raised Greek speakers, who completed an AX discrimination test, a digit span test, and a nonverbal intelligence test. A control group of English speakers also completed the AX test. Data were analyzed using Bayesian regression models. The results revealed that Greek speakers exhibited below chance discrimination for the majority of L2 vowel contrasts, consistently underperforming in comparison to the control group. Intriguingly, the study did not provide substantial evidence in favor of more accurate discrimination of L2 contrasts by Greek participants with high PSTM compared to those with low PSTM. However, the study yielded compelling evidence indicating that Greek participants with higher IQ demonstrated superior accuracy in discriminating most L2 contrasts compared to their lower IQ counterparts. The limited influence of PSTM on speech perception suggests the need for further exploration, considering the potential impact of test methodologies and the intricate interplay of other confounding factors. Furthermore, the study uncovers a noteworthy relationship between nonverbal IQ and L2 speech perception, likely linked with the association of high IQ with enhanced attentional capacities, information processing abilities, and learning skills-all of which are pivotal for accurate speech perception.

Does the Effectiveness of a Reading Intervention Differ Dependent on Students' Spanish or English Proficiencies?

This study investigated whether linguistic proficiencies in students' first language (L1)- Spanish-and English (L2) moderated the response to intensive reading intervention for sixth- and seventh-grade multilingual learners (MLs) with reading difficulties. We used confirmatory factor analysis to estimate proficiency scores in English and Spanish using measures of expressive and receptive vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. We then used latent variable moderated structural equation modeling to evaluate how proficiency in English and Spanish moderated the effect of treatment on students' reading outcomes in response to intervention. Two important findings occurred. First, the overall linguistic proficiencies of the sample were below average, suggesting the prevalence of low L1 and L2 may be high amongst the population of middle gradeMLs with reading difficulties. Second, we observed only one significant moderation effect: the effect of treatment on students' letter and word recognition was statistically significantly higher for students with higher English proficiency.

Functional preference of the left inferior parietal lobule to second language reading.

Additional neural substance for reading in a second language has been reported by prior studies. However, to date, there has been little investigation into whether and how the brain's adaptation to a second language is induced by specific linguistic tasks or is a general effect during reading in a new language. To address this issue, our study investigated Chinese children learning English as a second language by combining cross-sectional and longitudinal Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies. We compared brain activation across four reading tasks, orthographic tasks and phonological tasks in Chinese (the first language, L1) and English (the second language, L2). By comparing the activation pattern across languages, we observed greater activation in the left inferior parietal lobule (LIPL) in English compared to Chinese, suggesting a functional preference of the LIPL to L2. In addition, greater correlation between LIPL-related FC and L2 was mainly observed in the phonological task, indicating that LIPL could be associated with phonological processing. Moreover, a proportion of the children were enrolled in an 8-week phonological-based reading-training program. We observed significant functional plasticity of the LIPL elicited by this training program only in the English phonological task and not in the orthographic task, further substantiating that the additional requirements of the LIPL in L2 are mainly associated with phonological processing. The findings provide new insights into understanding the functional contribution of the LIPL to reading in a second language.

Phrase parsing in a second language as indexed by the closure positive shift: The impact of language experience and acoustic cue salience.

Despite the importance of prosodic processing in utterance parsing, a majority of studies investigating boundary localization in a second language focus on word segmentation. The goal of the present study was to investigate the parsing of phrase boundaries in first and second languages from different prosodic typologies (stress-timed vs. syllable-timed). Fifty English-French bilingual adults who varied in native language (French or English) and second language proficiency listened to English and French utterances with different prosodic structures while event-related brain potentials were recorded. The utterances were built around target words presented either in phrase-final position (bearing phrase-final lengthening) or in penultimate position. Each participant listened to both English and French stimuli, providing data in their native language (used as reference) and their second language. Target words in phrase-final position elicited closure positive shifts across listeners in both languages, regardless of the language-specific acoustic cues associated with phrase-final lengthening (shorter phrase-final lengthening in English compared to French). Interestingly, directional effects were observed, where learning to parse English as a second language in a native-like manner seemed to require a higher proficiency level than learning to parse French as a second language. This pattern of results supports the idea that L2 listeners need to learn to recognize L2-specific phrase-final lengthening regardless of the apparent similarity across languages and that some language combinations might present greater challenges than others.

An intricate relationship between executive function and second-language ability in a cohort of Uyghur-Chinese bilingual children.

The relationship between executive function and second-language ability remains contentious in bilingual children; thus, the current study focused on this issue. In total, 371 Uyghur-Chinese bilingual children ranging from 3 to 6 years old were assessed by a battery of tasks measuring language ability (expressive vocabulary tests, receptive vocabulary tests, and phonological awareness of both their first-language and second-language) and executive function (working memory, inhibition, and switching). Our results indicated that age is a crucial moderator of the relationship between second-language ability and executive function. Specifically, executive function unilaterally predicted second-language ability in children who were 3-4 years old, whereas second-language ability and executive function bilaterally influenced each other in children who were 4-5 and 5-6 years old. These findings suggest that executive function and second-language ability have an intertwined and causal relationship among preschool children during development. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: A counterfactual model showed causality between executive function and second language ability in Uyghur-Chinese bilingual children. Executive function unilaterally predicted second language ability in the 3- to 4-year-old age group. Executive function and second language ability bilaterally influenced each other in the 4- to 5 and 5- to 6-year-old age groups.

Obsolescence effects in second language phonological networks.

Phonological networks are representations of word forms and their phonological relationships with other words in a given language lexicon. A principle underlying the growth (or evolution) of those networks is preferential attachment, or the "rich-gets-richer" mechanisms, according to which words with many phonological neighbors (or links) are the main beneficiaries of future growth opportunities. Due to their limited number of words, language lexica constitute node-constrained networks where growth cannot keep increasing in a linear way; hence, preferential attachment is likely mitigated by certain factors. The present study investigated obsolescence effects (i.e., a word's finite timespan of being active in terms of growth) in an evolving phonological network of English as a second language. It was found that phonological neighborhoods are constructed by one large initial lexical spurt, followed by sublinear growth spurts that eventually lead to very limited growth in later lexical spurts during network evolution. First-language-given neighborhood densities are rarely reached even by the most advanced language learners. An analysis of the strength of phonological relationships between phonological word forms revealed a tendency to incorporate phonetically more distant phonological neighbors at earlier acquisition stages. Overall, the findings suggest an obsolescence effect in growth that favors younger words. Implications for the second-language lexicon include leveraged learning mechanisms and learning bouts focused on a smaller range of phonological segments, and involve questions concerning lexical processing in aging networks.

Sensitivity to word endings as probabilistic orthographic cues to lexical stress among English as second language learners.

Assigning stress to polysyllabic words is a crucial aspect of reading aloud in English. Previous research demonstrated that native English speakers are sensitive to word endings as probabilistic orthographic cues to stress assignment. However, little is known about if second language (L2) learners of English are sensitive to word endings as cues to lexical stress. The current study investigated whether native Chinese-speakers learning English as a second language (ESL) are sensitive to word endings as probabilistic orthographic cues to lexical stress. Our ESL learners demonstrated sensitivity to word endings as cues in a stress-assignment task and a naming task. With the increase in language proficiency, ESL learners responded more accurately in the stress-assignment task. Moreover, stress position and language proficiency moderated the strength of the sensitivity, with a trochaic bias and better proficiency leading to better sensitivity in the stress-assignment task. However, as language proficiency increased, participants' naming speed became faster in iambic but slower in trochaic patterns, reflecting the learners' fledgling knowledge about the specific stress patterns associated with varying orthographic cues, especially in a demanding naming task. Taken together, the evidence from our ESL learners fits in the proposed statistical learning mechanism, that is, L2 learners are able to implicitly extract statistical regularities from linguistic materials, the orthographic cues to lexical stress in our study. Stress position and language proficiency both play a role in developing this sensitivity.

The Effects of Language Barriers and Time Constraints on Online Learning Performance: An Eye-Tracking Study.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study is to model the effect of language use and time pressure on English as a first language (EFL) and English as a second language (ESL) students by measuring their eye movements in an on-screen, self-directed learning environment. BACKGROUND: Online learning is becoming integrated into learners' daily lives due to the flexibility in scheduling and location that it offers. However, in many cases, the online learners often have no interaction with one another or their instructors, making it difficult to determine how the learners are reading the materials and whether they are learning effectively. Furthermore, online learning may pose challenges to those who face language barriers or are under time pressure. METHOD: The effects of two factors, language use (EFL vs. ESL) and time constraints (high vs. low time pressure), were investigated during the presentation of online materials. The effects were analyzed based on eye movement measures (eye fixation rate-the total number of eye fixations divided by the task duration and gaze entropy) and behavioral measures (correct rate and task completion time). RESULTS: The results show that the ESL students had higher eye fixation rates and longer task completion times than the EFL students. Moreover, high time pressure resulted in high fixation rates, short task completion time, low correct rates, and high gaze entropy. CONCLUSION AND APPLICATION: The results suggest the possibility of using unobtrusive eye movement measures to develop ways to better assist those who struggle with learning in the online environment.