Norwegian Biological Parents and Stepparents' Attitudes Towards Family Obligations in Middle and Old Age.

This study investigated the associations between the current family structure and the agreement with family obligations in middle and old age. It also tested whether gender differences exist in these associations. Based on research that has observed steprelationships tend to be less close than biological relationships are, it is argued that older individuals who are stepparents have lower agreement with family obligations than their counterparts in biological families have. The analytical sample was drawn from the Norwegian Life Course Ageing and Generation survey and consisted of 5564 individuals aged 50 and older. Findings suggest that individuals who do not have biological children but who are stepparents to their partners' children agree more with filial obligations and less with parental obligations than biological parents do. The findings extend knowledge on diverse family structures in old age.

Stepfamily Structure and Transfers Between Generations in U.S. Families.

Unstable couple relationships and high rates of repartnering have increased the share of U.S. families with stepkin. Yet data on stepfamily structure are from earlier periods, include only coresident stepkin, or cover only older adults. In this study, we use new data on family structure and transfers in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) to describe the prevalence and numbers of stepparents and stepchildren for adults of all ages and to characterize the relationship between having stepkin and transfers of time and money between generations, regardless of whether the kin live together. We find that having stepparents and stepchildren is very common among U.S. households, especially younger households. Furthermore, stepkin substantially increase the typical household's family size; stepparents and stepchildren increase a household's number of parents and adult children by nearly 40 % for married/cohabiting couples with living parents and children. However, having stepkin is associated with fewer transfers, particularly time transfers between married women and their stepparents and stepchildren. The increase in the number of family members due to stepkin is insufficient to compensate for the lower likelihood of transfers in stepfamilies. Our findings suggest that recent cohorts with more stepkin may give less time assistance to adult children and receive less time assistance from children in old age than prior generations.

Mother-Stepfather Coparenting in Stepfamilies as Predictor of Child Adjustment.

Coparenting between biological parents is a strong predictor of child adjustment. To date, however, little is known about the coparenting dynamics between parent and stepparent in stepfamilies. This study aimed at exploring the links between coparenting in the mother-stepfather dyad and child behavior in stepfamilies compared with the links between mother-father coparenting and child behavior in first-marriage families. Two modes of coparenting were assessed: overt coparenting, that is, coparental behaviors in the presence of the child, and covert coparenting, that is, the way each parent speaks of the other parent to the child. The sample (N = 80) comprised 48 stepfamilies and 32 first-marriage families with a child between 7 and 13 years old. Overt coparenting was assessed through direct observation in the standardized situation of the PicNic Game. Covert coparenting and child behavior were assessed through mother-reported questionnaires. Results showed (a) more covert coparenting behaviors in first-marriage families, (b) no differences in overt coparenting, (c) more child difficulties reported in stepfamilies, (d) less optimal overt coparenting being linked with more difficulties in children in both family structures, and (e) an interaction effect between family structure and coparenting, showing that overt coparenting is linked with child behavior mainly in stepfamilies.

La cocrianza entre padres biológicos es una buena predictora de la adaptación del niño. Sin embargo, hasta la fecha, se sabe muy poco acerca de la dinámica de cocrianza entre padre/madre y padrastro/madrastra en las familias ensambladas. La finalidad de este estudio fue analizar las relaciones entre la cocrianza en la díada madre-padrastro y comportamiento del niño en familias ensambladas comparadas con las relaciones entre la cocrianza de la madre y el padre y el comportamiento del niño en familias formadas por un matrimonio en primeras nupcias. Se evaluaron dos formas de cocrianza: la cocrianza abierta, es decir, los comportamientos coparentales en presencia del niño, y la cocrianza encubierta, es decir, la manera en la que cada padre habla del otro padre al niño. La muestra (N = 80) constituyó 48 familias ensambladas y 32 familias de matrimonios en primeras nupcias con un niño de entre 7 y 13 años. La cocrianza abierta se evaluó mediante la observación directa en la situación estandarizada del juego del picnic. La cocrianza encubierta y el comportamiento del niño se evaluaron mediante cuestionarios informados por la madre. Los resultados demostraron (a) más comportamientos de cocrianza encubierta en las familias formadas por matrimonios en primeras nupcias, (b) ninguna difrencia en la cocrianza abierta, (c) más dificultades de los niños informadas en las familias ensambladas, (d) menos cocrianza abierta óptima ligada a más dificultades en los niños en ambas estructuras familiares, y (e) un efecto de interacción entre la estructura familiar y la cocrianza, lo cual demuestra que la cocrianza abierta está asociada con el comportamiento del niño principalmente en las familias ensambladas.

A Research Note on Income Pooling in Partnerships: Incorporating Nonresident Children.

Income pooling is a common behavior among couples. However, cohabiting and married individuals in more complex families, namely those with stepchildren, are less likely to pool incomes. Similarly, income pooling might be unlikely when there are nonresident children, who could potentially draw resources outside the household, yet prior work has largely overlooked the role of nonresident children. We take advantage of a unique data set, the Family and Relationships Study, which allows us to not only identify shared and unshared children (i.e., stepchildren) within the household but also unshared children outside the household. Focusing on cohabiting and married individuals (N = 4,408), we find that those with resident unshared children are less likely to pool incomes but that nonresident children are unrelated to income pooling. The results confirm that household-level complexity is a key factor in couples' economic decision making.

Stepfamilies Doing Family: A Meta-Ethnography.

The present review examines how stepfamily members without a shared history co-construct a shared family identity and what family processes are relevant in this stepfamily formation. Three databases (Web of Science, PsycInfo, and ProQuest) were systematically searched, resulting in 20 included qualitative studies. The meta-ethnography approach of Noblit and Hare allowed synthesizing these qualitative studies and constructing a comprehensive framework of stepfamilies doing family. Three interdependent family tasks were identified: (a) honoring the past, (b) marking the present, and (c) investing in the future. Stepfamily members' experiences of these family tasks are strongly affected by the dominant societal perspectives and characterized by an underlying dialectical tension between wanting to be like a first-time family and feeling the differences in their family structure at the same time. These findings clearly demonstrate the family work that all stepfamily members undertake and provide a broader context for interpreting stepfamilies' co-construction of a new family identity.

Studying Stepfamilies: Four Eras of Family Scholarship.

Historically, there have always been stepfamilies, but until the early 1970s, they remained largely unnoticed by social scientists. Research interest in stepfamilies followed shortly after divorce became the primary precursor to stepfamily formation. Because stepfamilies are structurally diverse and much more complex than nuclear families, they have created considerable challenges for both researchers and clinicians. This article examines four eras of stepfamily scholarship, tracing the development of research questions, study designs and methods, and conceptual frameworks from the mid-1970s to the present and drawing implications for the current state of the field.

Recoupling in Mid-Life and Beyond: From Love at Last to Not So Fast.

Divorce rates have dropped in the United States, except for couples over 50 where they are rising steeply, along with rates of late-life recoupling. Both stepcouples and their young adult and adult children in new older stepfamilies are often surprised to find themselves facing many of the same challenges that younger stepfamilies do. Some challenges are even intensified by the decades-long relationships and additional layers of extended family that come with recoupling after mid-life. Stepfamilies formed in later life must also negotiate decisions about estate planning and elder care among stakeholders who often have sharply divergent agendas before there is time to establish trusting relationships. This article describes the "normal" challenges facing stepcouples who come together over age 50. It provides evidence-informed guidance for therapists in meeting these challenges on three levels of clinical work: Psychoeducational, Interpersonal, and Intrapsychic/Intergenerational. As in younger stepfamilies, "family therapy" must usually begin in subsystems-often the adult stepcouple and parent-adult child. The article then describes a particularly fraught subgroup of recouplers: over-50 fathers and their new partners, where the dad's young adult or adult daughter is very unhappy with his new relationship. In these latter stepfamilies, father-daughter repair must precede stepfamily bonding. Stepfamilies that are preceded by a partner's death and those that begin with affairs are also discussed. Finally, some "easy wrong turns" for therapists are described.

Clinical Guidelines for Working With Stepfamilies: What Family, Couple, Individual, and Child Therapists Need to Know.

This article draws on four decades of research and clinical practice to delineate guidelines for evidence-informed, clinically sound work with stepfamilies for couple, family, individual adult, and child therapists. Few clinicians receive adequate training in working with the intense and often complex dynamics created by stepfamily structure and history. This is despite the fact that stepfamilies are a fundamentally different family form that occurs world-wide. As a result many clinicians rely on their training in first-time family models. This is not only often unhelpful, but all too often inadvertently destructive. The article integrates a large body of increasingly sophisticated research about stepfamilies with the author's four decades of clinical practice with stepfamily relationships. It describes the ways in which stepfamilies are different from first-time families. It delineates the dynamics of five major challenges stepfamily structure creates: (1) Insider/outsider positions are intense and they are fixed. (2) Children struggle with losses, loyalty binds, and change. (3) Issues of parenting, stepparenting, and discipline often divide the couple. (4) Stepcouples must build a new family culture while navigating previously established family cultures. (5) Ex-spouses (other parents outside the household) are part of the family. Some available data are shared on the impact of cultural and legal differences on these challenges. A three-level model of clinical intervention is presented: Psychoeducational, Interpersonal, and Intrapsychic/Intergenerational Family-of-Origin. The article describes some "easy wrong turns" for well-meaning therapists and lists some general clinical guidelines for working with stepfamily relationships.

Shifts in Higher-Order Unions and Stepfamilies among Currently Cohabiting and Married Women of Childbearing Age.

Shifts in union formation and childbearing have undoubtedly altered the prevalence and structure of higher-order unions and stepfamilies, but no study has examined trends over time. Comparing the 1988 and 2011-2013 cycles of the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG), I produce estimates of repartnering and stepfamily formation among currently partnered women aged 15-44. The percentage of intact unions that are remarriages stayed stable (around 27-28%), but a growing proportion of currently married and cohabiting women had another cohabiting partner in the past. The percentage of intact unions that are stepfamilies increased from 24% to 31%, with an increase in cohabiting stepfamilies from 19% to 39% of all stepfamilies. Further, while the majority of remarriages are stepfamilies, the majority of women's stepfamilies are no longer remarriages due to union formation among never-married parents. Cohabiting (but not marital) stepfamilies also exhibited changes in which partner had children and in shared childbearing.

My Mother's Husband: Factors Associated with How Adolescents Label their Stepfathers.

Adolescents in stepfamilies use different labels when describing their stepfather, such as "stepfather" or "mother's husband." These labels may reflect youths' sense of family identity or dynamics. The current study uses nationally representative data (Add Health) on a sample of adolescents living with their mothers and a married stepfather (n = 1192) to examine factors that may be associated with how teens describe their stepfather, and changes in this labeling over a year. Findings suggest that closeness with nonresident fathers increases the likelihood that teens avoid the "stepfather" label, while closeness with mothers increases the likelihood that they adopt the label. Closeness with their stepfather was not associated with how they label him. Other characteristics of the stepfamily are also important predictors of stepfather labeling.

AFRICAN AMERICAN STEPFATHER-STEPCHILD RELATIONSHIPS, MARITAL QUALITY, AND MENTAL HEALTH.

This study examined associations between stepfather-stepchild relationship quality, stepfathers' depressive symptoms, and two aspects of marriage: marital quality and positive marital interactions. Marital quality was assessed in terms of commitment, trust, passionate and friendship-based love, and happiness. Marital interactions were assessed in terms of intimacy, shared activities, and verbal communication. Using data collected from 149 recently married African American stepfathers, structural equation modeling revealed that when stepfathers reported more positive relationships with their stepchildren, they also reported more positive marital quality and a higher frequency of positive marital interactions (relationship solidifying activities), and that, in turn, was associated with stepfathers experiencing fewer depressive symptoms.

Remarriage Beliefs as Predictors of Marital Quality and Positive Interaction in Stepcouples: An Actor-Partner Interdependence Model.

Using an Actor-Partner Interdependence Model, we examined remarriage beliefs as predictors of marital quality and positive interaction in a sample of 179 stepcouples. Three beliefs were measured using subscales from the Remarriage Belief Inventory (RMBI) including success is slim, children are the priority, and finances should be pooled. Several significant actor and partner effects were found for both wives' and husbands' beliefs. Wives' marital quality was positively associated with their own beliefs that finances should be pooled and negatively associated with their own beliefs that success is slim. Wives' reports of their own and spouses' positive interaction were both positively associated with their beliefs that finances should be pooled. Their reports of spouses' positive interaction were also negatively associated with husbands' beliefs that success is slim. Husbands' marital quality was positively associated with wives' beliefs that children are the priority, positively associated with their own beliefs that finances should be pooled, and negatively with success is slim. Positive interaction for husbands was positively associated with wives' beliefs that finances should be pooled and negatively associated with their own beliefs that success is slim. Finally, husbands' reports of positive interaction for their spouses were positively associated with wives' beliefs that finances should be pooled. Implications for future research utilizing dyadic data analysis with stepcouples are addressed.

Factors associated with positive relationships between stepfathers and adolescent stepchildren.

This study employs nationally representative data on adolescents and their stepfathers (n=2085) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to examine factors associated with positive stepfather-stepchild relationships in married stepfamilies. Results reveal substantial variability in the perceived quality of adolescents' relationships with stepfathers. Structural equation models using Wave I data reveal that close relationships with mothers and close ties between mothers and stepfathers are positively related to the perceived quality of adolescents' relationships with stepfathers. Longitudinal models using Waves I and II do not yield definitive results but suggest that the direction of influence runs in both directions, with the mother-child relationship and the stepfather-stepchild relationship mutually reinforcing one another. We identify a number of other factors that are associated with positive stepfather-stepchild ties, as well as a few factors that may be less consequential than previously thought. Most of the correlates of positive stepfather-stepchild relationships are similar for boys and girls; for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics; and for stepfamilies of various durations.

Stepfamily Variation in Parent-Child Relationship Quality in Later Life.

Objective: We use a family systems approach to examine how stepfamily structure is associated with both positive and negative parent-child relationships while considering mothers' and fathers' discrepant reports. Background: Two in five older couples with children are in stepfamilies. Past research on later-life stepfamily dynamics has focused mainly on positive aspects of relationships and compared reports of mothers and fathers from different families. Method: Using the U.S. Health and Retirement Study, we estimated multilevel models with data from married couples in which both spouses reported living children and answered all questions about positive and negative parent-child relationships (N = 2,150). Results: Couples in stepfamilies reported less positive and more negative relationships with their children than did couples in non-stepfamilies. Mothers reported more positive relationships than fathers, but there was no gender difference in reports of negative relationships. The patterns of perceived parent-child relationships and divergent reports between mothers and fathers also varied by stepfamily structure. Structural complexity was not consistently related to positive or negative relationships. Conclusion: This study underscores the importance of considering mothers' and fathers' different points of view in the same family and examining both positive and negative parent-child interactions as negative relationships are not merely the reverse of positive relationships.

Race and ethnic differences in step- versus biological parent support to adult children.

Objective: This brief report examines differences in step- versus biological family support between White, Black, and Hispanic families in the United States. Background: The increasing share of stepfamilies reflects a potential shift in family relationships. Although research finds that stepfamilies are generally less likely to engage in instrumental support than biological families, recent work suggests that the relationship between family structure and family behaviors may vary across racial/ethnic groups. Method: Using data from the 2015-2017 Add Health Parent Study, this report examines racial/ethnic differences in step- versus biological family support between parents and adult children. Specifically, parents' likelihood of and hours of providing instrumental support to adult children are assessed. Results: Findings from this report indicate for Black and White families, stepfamilies are less likely to provide instrumental support to their adult children than biological families. Among Hispanic families, however, stepfamilies are not more or less likely to provide support than biological families. When hours of instrumental support are examined, White stepfamilies provide fewer hours of support than biological families, whereas no difference is found for Black or Hispanic families. Conclusion: Findings from this study contribute to broader work that calls for more nuanced understanding of the differential effects of family structure across social groups. Future research should consider applying within-race/ethnicity analyses when examining the association between family structure and intergenerational support.

Family structure transitions and educational outcomes: Explaining heterogeneity by parental education in Germany.

Recent research has documented that the effect of parental separation on children's educational outcomes depends on socioeconomic background. Yet, parental separation could lead to a stable single-parent family or to a further transition to a stepfamily. Little is known about how the effect of family structure transitions on educational outcomes depends on the education of parents and stepparents, and there has been limited empirical research into the mechanisms that explain heterogeneity in the effects of family transitions. Using longitudinal data from the German Socio-Economic Panel and models with entropy balancing and sibling fixed effects, I explore the heterogeneous effects of family transitions during early and middle childhood on academic secondary school track attendance, grades and aspirations. I find that family transitions only reduce the academic school track attendance among children of less educated parents living in stepfamilies or with a single mother after parental separation, and among children of highly educated fathers living in single-mother families. The mechanisms that partly explain these effects relate to reduced income and exposure to poverty after parental separation. The findings underscore the importance of considering the stepparent's educational level, indicating that the adverse consequences of parental separation on educational outcomes are mitigated when a highly educated stepfather becomes part of the family. Overall, these findings align more closely with the resource perspective than the family stability perspective.

Intergenerational transmission of health behaviors in a changing demographic context: The case of smoking and alcohol consumption.

Many studies have documented that health behaviors are transmitted from parents to children. Due to the rise in divorce and remarriage, the context of intergenerational transmission has changed. Using a national multi-actor survey from the Netherlands, the impact of parents' health behaviors on children was compared in different types of families. The focus was on smoking and alcohol consumption of adult children (25-45) in relation to the same health behaviors of multiple parent figures when the children were growing up. Analyses show that the influence of divorced fathers was smaller than that of married fathers. Stepfathers had a significant influence on children as well, on top of the effects of the biological parents. The impact of both divorced fathers and stepfathers was moderated by their involvement in the child's life after divorce. The overall transmission of health behaviors was smaller in single-parent families but larger in stepfamilies.

Is Adolescent Risk Behavior Associated With Cross-Household Family Complexity? An Analysis of Post-separation Families in 42 Countries.

We examine whether complex cross-household structures of post-separation families are associated with higher risk-taking behavior in adolescence (substance use, bullying, early sexual onset) and whether the proportion, and thus statistical normality, of complex family types in a certain country is a potential moderator of this association. Drawing on representative data from 42 countries and regions from the Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) study in 2001, 2006, and 2010 (N = 506,977), we provide detailed analyses on adolescent risk behavior even for very rare family types, thereby accounting for the complex cross-household structure present in many post-separation families. We combine logistic and count regression models to analyze risk incidence and intensity. Controlling for relevant child and family characteristics, our results reveal a gradient along which adolescent risk-taking increases with family complexity: The incidence and intensity of risk-taking among adolescents is lowest in two-biological-parent and highest in two-household families with stepparents in both households. The association decreases with a higher proportion of the respective family type in a country. However, the differences between family types, other than the two-biological parent family, are not as pronounced as expected.

A web-based psychoeducational simulation game for adults in stepfamilies (GSteps)-study protocol for a randomized controlled feasibility trial.

Background: Stepfamilies are a prevalent family form. However, less stable than nuclear, first marriage families due to the presence of risk factors such as the absence of social norms and the presence of stepchildren. Stepfamilies have unique educational needs regarding stepparenting and co-parenting issues. The development and documentation of psychoeducational intervention strategies can facilitate dissemination of ongoing studies and promote transparency. This article describes the background, design and protocol of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluating the eficacy and feasibility of a web-based Psychoeducational Simulation Game (GSteps). Behavior-modeling video training (BMT) is used to demonstrate and promote relational skills, stepparenting and co-parenting effective strategies for adults in stepfamilies. A mental health professional will be available within the GSteps platform for clarification or emotional support. Methods/design: A RCT design is presented to evaluate the outcomes of a self-administered, interactive and web-based psychoeducational Game targeting dyadic marital adjustment and interpersonal skills as the primary outcomes and remarriage beliefs, family function and stepparenting and co-parenting attitudes as the secondary outcomes. Other outcome measures include satisfaction with GSteps, participants' knowledge learned after the intervention and a purposive sampling method will be used to access feasibility. The minimum required sample size is 112 participants (56 per condition) randomly allocated either to an experimental group (EG), receiving GSteps intervention, or to a wait-list control group (CG). A survey is conducted electronically. Assessments take place at baseline (T0 ), after the intervention (T1 ) and 1-month follow-up (T2 ). Discussion: This protocol presents a RCT aimed at evaluating the efficacy of a web-based psychoeducational intervention (GSteps) designed for improving marital, stepparenting and co-parenting skills in adults who live in stepfamilies. The use of the protocol and results of intervention studies may guide the use and refinement of web-based psychoeducational intervention for stepfamilies. Additionally, GSteps may become a tool for health professionals to enhance stepfamily functioning, stepparenting skills, and marital adjustment of remarried adults.

Was Cinderella just a fairy tale? Survival differences between stepchildren and their half-siblings.

The death of a parent, particularly the mother, is linked to a suite of negative outcomes across the life-course. Compounding concerns for child outcomes are expectations of poor treatment by step-parents after parental remarriage. Indeed, folk tales of step-parental abuse abound cross-culturally and are embedded into stories taught to children. To understand why child outcomes might be sensitive to levels of relatedness within the household, evolutionary-oriented research targets patterning in parental expenditure in ways predicted to maximize inclusive fitness. In particular, parents are expected to prioritize investments in their biological children. However, stepfamilies are only formed after children experience multiple unfortunate events (e.g. parental loss, poverty), blurring causal interpretations between step-parental presence and stepchild outcomes. Moreover, stepchildren have been shown to be integral to household functioning, caring for their half-siblings and stabilizing relationships. These results challenge narrow views of adaptive behaviour; specifically, that step-parents, unlike biological parents, do no stand to reap fitness benefits from the care that they provide to their stepchildren. To evaluate these critiques, we analyse the survival outcomes of stepchildren. We include over 400 000 individuals from across a natural fertility period (1847-1940) in the United States state of Utah and examine the consequences of parental loss and step-parental introduction. Our analyses yield three key results: (i) exposure to maternal loss in childhood is associated with elevated mortality risk, (ii) parental remarriage does not increase the risk of mortality among stepchildren compared to non-stepchildren who too had lost a parent, and (iii) stepchildren enjoy higher survival than their half-siblings within the same family. Ultimately, this work contributes to the increasingly recognized importance of cooperative relationships among non-kin for childcare and household functioning. This article is part of the theme issue 'Multidisciplinary perspectives on social support and maternal-child health'.