Fin elaboration via anterior-posterior constraint by hhip on Hedgehog signaling in teleosts.

Pectoral fins, the anterior paired fins in fish, have enhanced maneuvering abilities due to morphological changes. Teleosts have fewer radial bones in their pectoral fins than basal species, resulting in more elaborate fins. The mechanism behind this radial constraint change in teleosts is unclear. Here, we found that mutations in hhip, an antagonist of Hedgehog signaling, lead to an increase in radial bones in a localized region. The shh genes, ligands of Hedgehog signaling, were expressed coinciding with notable hhip expression specifically during early development. We suggest that a negative feedback effect of Hedgehog signaling by hhip regulates the constraint of the pectoral fin in zebrafish. Additionally, the expression reanalysis of Hhip-related genes implied that the notable hhip expression during early development was a characteristic of zebrafish, not observed in basal species. Region-specific expression of Hox13 genes indicated that hhip-/- zebrafish expanded the median region of the pectoral fin, analogous to the region with abundant radials in basal species. The data underscore potential morphological evolution through constrained diversity.

The decision of male medaka to mate or fight depends on two complementary androgen signaling pathways.

Adult male animals typically court and attempt to mate with females, while attacking other males. Emerging evidence from mice indicates that neurons expressing the estrogen receptor ESR1 in behaviorally relevant brain regions play a central role in mediating these mutually exclusive behavioral responses to conspecifics. However, the findings in mice are unlikely to apply to vertebrates in general because, in many species other than rodents and some birds, androgens-rather than estrogens-have been implicated in male behaviors. Here, we report that male medaka (Oryzias latipes) lacking one of the two androgen receptor subtypes (Ara) are less aggressive toward other males and instead actively court them, while those lacking the other subtype (Arb) are less motivated to mate with females and conversely attack them. These findings indicate that, in male medaka, the Ara- and Arb-mediated androgen signaling pathways facilitate appropriate behavioral responses, while simultaneously suppressing inappropriate responses, to males and females, respectively. Notably, males lacking either receptor retain the ability to discriminate the sex of conspecifics, suggesting a defect in the subsequent decision-making process to mate or fight. We further show that Ara and Arb are expressed in intermingled but largely distinct populations of neurons, and stimulate the expression of different behaviorally relevant genes including galanin and vasotocin, respectively. Collectively, our results demonstrate that male teleosts make adaptive decisions to mate or fight as a result of the activation of one of two complementary androgen signaling pathways, depending on the sex of the conspecific that they encounter.

Social stress-induced serotonin dysfunction activates spexin in male Nile tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus).

Social disturbance in interpersonal relationships is the primary source of stress in humans. Spexin (SPX, SPX1a in cichlid), an evolutionarily conserved neuropeptide with diverse physiological functions, is up-regulated in the brain during chronic social defeat stress in teleost. On the other hand, repeated exposure to social stress can lead to dysregulation of the monoaminergic system and increase the vulnerability of developing depression. Since dysfunction of the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) system is associated with social stress and the pathophysiology of depression, the present study investigated the regulatory relationship between the central 5-HT system and SPX1a in the male teleost, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). To identify stress factors that regulate SPX1a gene expression, cortisol, dexamethasone (DEX), and 5-HT were used to treat tilapia brain primary cultures. Our study shows cortisol and DEX treatment had no effect on SPX1a gene expression, but SPX1a gene expression was down-regulated following 5-HT treatment. Anatomical localization showed a close association between 5-HT immunoreactive projections and SPX1a neurons in the semicircular torus. In addition, 5-HT receptors (5-HT2B) were expressed in SPX1a neurons. SPX1a immunoreactive neurons and SPX1a gene expression were significantly increased in socially defeated tilapia. On the other hand, citalopram (antidepressant, 5-HT antagonist) treatment to socially defeated tilapia normalized SPX1a gene expression to control levels. Taken together, the present study shows that 5-HT is an upstream regulator of SPX1a and that the inhibited 5-HT activates SPX1a during social defeat.

Advancing human disease research with fish evolutionary mutant models.

Model organism research is essential to understand disease mechanisms. However, laboratory-induced genetic models can lack genetic variation and often fail to mimic the spectrum of disease severity. Evolutionary mutant models (EMMs) are species with evolved phenotypes that mimic human disease. EMMs complement traditional laboratory models by providing unique avenues to study gene-by-environment interactions, modular mutations in noncoding regions, and their evolved compensations. EMMs have improved our understanding of complex diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and aging, and illuminated mechanisms in many organs. Rapid advancements of sequencing and genome-editing technologies have catapulted the utility of EMMs, particularly in fish. Fish are the most diverse group of vertebrates, exhibiting a kaleidoscope of specialized phenotypes, many that would be pathogenic in humans but are adaptive in the species' specialized habitat. Importantly, evolved compensations can suggest avenues for novel disease therapies. This review summarizes current research using fish EMMs to advance our understanding of human disease.

Neuropeptide FF indirectly affects testicular morphogenesis and functions in medaka.

Testicular morphogenesis and functions are considered to be under the control of neural and endocrine systems. However, the available literature is mainly limited to mammals, and it remains unclear how they are regulated in teleost species. Here, we demonstrated that neuropeptide FF (NPFF) in the brain is responsible for the follicle-stimulating hormone expression in the pituitary, which facilitates the testicular morphogenesis and androgen synthesis, and subsequently contributes to successful spermatogenesis. The present findings give us important insights into the neuroendocrine regulatory mechanisms underlying the testicular morphogenesis and functions in teleosts.

TGF-ß1 suppresses the T-cell response in teleost fish by initiating Smad3- and Foxp3-mediated transcriptional networks.

Transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) can suppress the activation, proliferation, and function of many T-cell subsets, protecting organisms from inflammatory and autoimmune disease caused by an overexuberant immune response. However, whether and how TGF-ß1 regulates T-cell immunity in early vertebrates remain unknown. Here, using a Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) model, we investigated suppression of the T-cell response by TGF-ß1 in teleost species. Tilapia encodes an evolutionarily conserved TGF-ß1, the expression of which in lymphocytes is significantly induced during the immune response following Edwardsiella piscicida infection. Once activated, tilapia T cells increase TGF-ß1 production, which in turn suppresses proinflammatory cytokine expression and inhibits T-cell activation. Notably, we found administration of TGF-ß1 cripples the proliferation of tilapia T cells, reduces the potential capacity of Th1/2 differentiation, and impairs the cytotoxic function, rendering the fish more vulnerable to bacterial infection. Mechanistically, TGF-ß1 initiates the TGF-ßR/Smad signaling pathway and triggers the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2/3. Smad3 subsequently interacts with several transcriptional partners to repress transcription of cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ but promote transcription of immune checkpoint regulator CTLA4 and transcription factor Foxp3. Furthermore, TGF-ß1/Smad signaling further utilizes Foxp3 to achieve the cascade regulation of these T-cell genes. Taken together, our findings reveal a detailed mechanism by which TGF-ß1 suppresses the T cell-based immunity in Nile tilapia and support the notion that TGF-ß1 had already been employed to inhibit the T-cell response early in vertebrate evolution, thus providing novel insights into the evolution of the adaptive immune system.

Long-read de novo genome assembly of Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta).

BACKGROUND: The family Batrachoididae are a group of ecologically important teleost fishes with unique life histories, behavior, and physiology that has made them popular model organisms. Batrachoididae remain understudied in the realm of genomics, with only four reference genome assemblies available for the family, with three being highly fragmented and not up to current assembly standards. Among these is the Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta, a model organism for serotonin physiology which has recently been bred in captivity. RESULTS: Here we present a new, de novo genome and transcriptome assemblies for the Gulf toadfish using PacBio long read technology. The genome size of the final assembly is 2.1 gigabases, which is among the largest teleost genomes. This new assembly improves significantly upon the currently available reference for Opsanus beta with a final scaffold count of 62, of which 23 are chromosome scale, an N50 of 98,402,768, and a BUSCO completeness score of 97.3%. Annotation with ab initio and transcriptome-based methods generated 41,076 gene models. The genome is highly repetitive, with ~ 70% of the genome composed of simple repeats and transposable elements. Satellite DNA analysis identified potential telomeric and centromeric regions. CONCLUSIONS: This improved assembly represents a valuable resource for future research using this important model organism and to teleost genomics more broadly.

Interlocus Gene Conversion, Natural Selection, and Paralog Homogenization.

Following a duplication, the resulting paralogs tend to diverge. While mutation and natural selection can accelerate this process, they can also slow it. Here, we quantify the paralog homogenization that is caused by point mutations and interlocus gene conversion (IGC). Among 164 duplicated teleost genes, the median percentage of postduplication codon substitutions that arise from IGC rather than point mutation is estimated to be between 7% and 8%. By differentiating between the nonsynonymous codon substitutions that homogenize the protein sequences of paralogs and the nonhomogenizing nonsynonymous substitutions, we estimate the homogenizing nonsynonymous rates to be higher for 163 of the 164 teleost data sets as well as for all 14 data sets of duplicated yeast ribosomal protein-coding genes that we consider. For all 14 yeast data sets, the estimated homogenizing nonsynonymous rates exceed the synonymous rates.

Foxn1 is not essential for T-cell development in teleosts.

In mammals, T-cell development depends on the activity of the Foxn1 transcription factor in the thymic epithelium; mutations in the vertebrate-specific Foxn1 gene are associated with profound T-cell lymphopenia and fatal immunodeficiency. Here, we examined the extent of T-cell development in teleosts lacking a functional foxn1 gene. In zebrafish carrying a deleterious internal deletion of foxn1, reduced but robust lymphopoietic activity is maintained in the mutant thymus. Moreover, pseudogenization or loss of foxn1 in the genomes of deep-sea anglerfishes is independent of the presence or absence of the canonical signatures of the T-cell lineage. Thus, in contrast to the situation in mammals, the teleost thymus can support foxn1-independent lymphopoiesis, most likely through the activity of the Foxn4, an ancient metazoan paralog of Foxn1. Our results imply that during the early stages of vertebrate evolution, genetic control of thymopoiesis was functionally redundant and thus robust; in mammals, the genetic network was reorganized to become uniquely dependent on the FOXN1 transcription factor.

A review of the reproductive biology of mormyroid fishes: An emerging model for biomedical research.

Mormyroidea is a superfamily of weakly electric African fishes with great potential as a model in a variety of biomedical research areas including systems neuroscience, muscle cell and craniofacial development, ion channel biophysics, and flagellar/ciliary biology. However, they are currently difficult to breed in the laboratory setting, which is essential for any tractable model organism. As such, there is a need to better understand the reproductive biology of mormyroids to breed them more reliably in the laboratory to effectively use them as a biomedical research model. This review seeks to (1) briefly highlight the biomedically relevant phenotypes of mormyroids and (2) compile information about mormyroid reproduction including sex differences, breeding season, sexual maturity, gonads, gametes, and courtship/spawning behaviors. We also highlight areas of mormyroid reproductive biology that are currently unexplored and/or have the potential for further investigation that may provide insights into more successful mormyroid laboratory breeding methods.

Involvement of vimentin- and BLBP-positive glial cells and their MMP expression in axonal regeneration after spinal cord transection in goldfish.

In goldfish, spinal cord injury triggers the formation of a fibrous scar at the injury site. Regenerating axons are able to penetrate the scar tissue, resulting in the recovery of motor function. Previous findings suggested that regenerating axons enter the scar through tubular structures surrounded by glial elements with laminin-positive basement membranes and that glial processes expressing glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) are associated with axonal regeneration. How glia contribute to promoting axonal regeneration, however, is unknown. Here, we revealed that glial processes expressing vimentin or brain lipid-binding protein (BLBP) also enter the fibrous scar after spinal cord injury in goldfish. Vimentin-positive glial processes were more numerous than GFAP- or BLBP-positive glial processes in the scar tissue. Regenerating axons in the scar tissue were more closely associated with vimentin-positive glial processes than GFAP-positive glial processes. Vimentin-positive glial processes co-expressed matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-14. Our findings suggest that vimentin-positive glial processes closely associate with regenerating axons through tubular structures entering the scar after spinal cord injury in goldfish. In intact spinal cord, ependymo-radial glial cell bodies express BLBP and their radial processes express vimentin, suggesting that vimentin-positive glial processes derive from migrating ependymo-radial glial cells. MMP-14 expressed in vimentin-positive glial cells and their processes might provide a beneficial environment for axonal regeneration.

Paracrine and endocrine pathways of natriuretic peptides assessed by ligand-receptor mapping in the Japanese eel brain.

The natriuretic peptide (NP) family consists of cardiac NPs (ANP, BNP, and VNP) and brain NPs (CNPs) in teleosts. In addition to CNP1-4, a paralogue of CNP4 (named CNP4b) was recently discovered in basal teleosts including Japanese eel. Mammals have lost most Cnps during the evolution, but teleost cnps were conserved and diversified, suggesting that CNPs are important hormones for maintaining brain functions in teleost. The present study evaluated the potency of each Japanese eel CNP to their NP receptors (NPR-A, NPR-B, NPR-C, and NPR-D) overexpressed in CHO cells. A comprehensive brain map of cnps- and nprs-expressing neurons in Japanese eel was constructed by integrating the localization results obtained by in situ hybridization. The result showed that CHO cells expressing NPR-A and NPR-B induced strong cGMP productions after stimulation by cardiac and brain NPs, respectively. Regarding brain distribution of cnps, cnp1 is engaged in the ventral telencephalic area and periventricular area including the parvocellular preoptic nucleus (Pp), anterior/posterior tuberal nuclei, and periventricular gray zone of the optic tectum. cnp3 is found in the habenular nucleus and prolactin cells in the pituitary. cnp4 is expressed in the ventral telencephalic area, while cnp4b is expressed in the motoneurons in the medullary area. Such CNP isoform-specific localizations suggest that function of each CNP has diverged in the eel brain. Furthermore, the Pp lacking the blood-brain barrier expressed both npra and nprb, suggesting that endocrine and paracrine NPs interplay for regulating the Pp functions in Japanese eels.

Ecological filtering drives rapid spatiotemporal dynamics in fish skin microbiomes.

Skin microbiomes provide vital functions, yet knowledge about the drivers and processes structuring their species assemblages is limited-especially for non-model organisms. In this study, fish skin microbiome was assessed by high throughput sequencing of amplicon sequence variants from metabarcoding of V3-V4 regions in the 16S rRNA gene on fish hosts subjected to the following experimental manipulations: (i) translocation between fresh and brackish water habitats to investigate the role of environment; (ii) treatment with an antibacterial disinfectant to reboot the microbiome and investigate community assembly and priority effects; and (iii) maintained alone or in pairs to study the role of social environment and inter-host dispersal of microbes. The results revealed that fish skin microbiomes harbour a highly dynamic microbial composition that was distinct from bacterioplankton communities in the ambient water. Microbiome composition first diverged as an effect of translocation to either the brackish or freshwater habitat. When the freshwater individuals were translocated back to brackish water, their microbiome composition converged towards the fish microbiomes in the brackish habitat. In summary, external environmental conditions and individual-specific factors jointly determined the community composition dynamics, whereas inter-host dispersal had negligible effects. The dynamics of the microbiome composition was seemingly non-affected by reboot treatment, pointing towards high resilience to disturbance. The results emphasised the role of inter-individual variability for the unexplained variation found in many host-microbiome systems, although the mechanistic underpinnings remain to be identified.

Membrane molecule bouncer regulates sperm binding activity in immature oocytes in the viviparous teleost species Poecilia reticulata (guppy).

Generally, in vertebrates, the first step toward fertilization is the ovulation of mature oocytes, followed by their binding to sperm cells outside of the ovary. Exceptionally, the oocytes of poeciliid fish are fertilized by sperm cells within the follicle, and the developmental embryo is subsequently released into the ovarian lumen before delivery. In the present study, we aimed to identify the factor(s) responsible for intrafollicular fertilization in a viviparous teleost species, Poecilia reticulata (guppy). Sperm tracking analysis in this regard indicated that in this species, sperm cells reached immature oocytes including the germinal vesicle, and the insemination assay indicated that the immature oocytes robustly adhered to the sperm cells; similar binding was not observed in Danio rerio (zebrafish) and Oryzias latipes (medaka). We also identified the Ly6/uPAR protein bouncer as the factor responsible for the observed sperm binding activity of the immature oocytes in this species. The recombinant bouncer peptide acted as an inhibitory decoy for the sperm-oocyte binding in guppy. On the other hand, ectopic expression of guppy bouncer in zebrafish oocytes resulted in interspecific sperm-oocyte binding. These results argue that bouncer is responsible for sperm-immature oocyte binding. Our findings highlight the unique reproductive strategies of guppy fish and enhance our understanding of the diverse reproductive mechanisms in vertebrates.

Estrogenic influences on agonistic behavior in teleost fishes.

Teleost fishes show an extraordinary diversity of sexual patterns, social structures, and sociosexual behaviors. Sex steroid hormones are key modulators of social behaviors in teleosts as in other vertebrates and act on sex steroid receptor-containing brain nuclei that form the evolutionarily conserved vertebrate social behavior network (SBN). Fishes also display important differences relative to tetrapod vertebrates that make them particularly well-suited to study the physiological mechanisms modulating social behavior. Specifically, fishes exhibit high levels of brain aromatization and have what has been proposed to be a lifelong, steroid hormone dependent plasticity in the neural substrates mediating sociosexual behavior. In this review, we examine how estrogenic signaling modulates sociosexual behaviors in teleosts with a particular focus on agonistic behavior. Estrogens have been shown to mediate agonistic behaviors in a broad range of fishes, from sexually monomorphic gonochoristic species to highly dimorphic sex changers with alternate reproductive phenotypes. These similarities across such diverse taxa contribute to a growing body of evidence that estrogens play a crucial role in the modulation of aggression in vertebrates. As analytical techniques and genomic tools rapidly advance, methods such as LC-MS/MS, snRNAseq, and CRISPR-based mutagenesis show great promise to further elucidate the mechanistic basis of estrogenic effects on social behavior in the diverse teleost lineage.

Time-compensated sun compass in juvenile sprat (Sprattus sprattus) reveals the onset of migratory readiness.

Sprat (Sprattus sprattus) is one of the most commercially exploited fish species in the Baltic Sea and expresses a pronounced seasonal migration pattern. Spawning takes place, among other places, in the Kiel Bight and Kiel Fjord in early summer. Juvenile sprat leave the nursery areas in late summer/early autumn to move to their feeding and overwintering grounds. What kind of orientation mechanisms sprat use for migration is not known yet. This study shows that juvenile sprat can use a time-compensated sun compass, heading towards the northeast, in the direction of their proposed overwintering grounds in Bornholm Basin. The sprats tested at the end of August oriented themselves in the predicted direction, whereas the sprats tested at the beginning of August only showed a random orientation. For the first time, this demonstrates the onset of migratory readiness in juvenile sprat, indicating the preparation for starting their migration.

Meningitis caused by Aeromonas hydrophila in Oreochromis niloticus: Proteomics and druggability of virulence factors.

Meningitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria is a serious public health problem, causing morbidity and mortality in both children and adults. Here, we propose a novel experimental model using Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to study neuroinflammation. The fish were infected with Aeromonas hydrophila, and the course of infection was monitored in the peripheral blood. Septicemia was obvious in the blood, while in the brain tissue, infection of the meninges was present. The histopathological examination showed suppurative meningitis, and the cellular immune response in the brain tissue during infection was mediated by microglia. These cells were morphologically characterized and phenotyped by MHC class II markers and CD68. The increased production of TNF-α, IL-1ß and iNOS supported the infiltration of these cells during the neuroinflammatory process. In the proteomic analysis of A. hydrophila isolated from brain tissue, we found chemotactic and transport proteins, proteolytic enzymes and enzymes associated with the dismutation of nitric oxide (NO), as well as motor proteins and those responsible for cell division. After characterizing the most abundant proteins during the course of infection, we investigated the druggability index of these proteins and identified promising peptide sequences as molecular targets that are similar among bacteria. Thus, these findings deepened the understanding of the pathophysiology of meningitis caused by A. hydrophila. Moreover, through the proteomics analysis, important mechanisms and pathways used by the pathogen to subvert the host response were revealed, providing insights for the development of novel antibiotics and vaccines.

The ontogeny of lymphoid organs and IgM+ B-cells in ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta) reveals a potential site for extrarenal B-cell lymphopoiesis: The pancreas.

Vaccination of farmed fish is the most effective prophylactic measure against contagious diseases but requires specific knowledge on when the adaptive immune system is fully developed. The present work describes kidney and spleen morphogenesis as well as B-cell development in the ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta). The kidney was present at hatching (0 days pot hatching, dph) but was not lymphoid before larvae was 50-60 dph (stage 5), containing abundant Igµ+ cells. The spleen anlage was first observed in larvae at 20-30 dph and was later populated with B-cells. Unexpectedly, we found strong RAG1 signal together with abundant Igµ+ and IgM + cells in the exocrine pancreas of larvae from when the kidney was lymphoid and onwards, suggesting that B-cell lymphopoiesis occurs not only in the head kidney (HK) but also in pancreatic tissue. In this agastric fish, the pancreas is diffused along the intestine and the early presence of IgM+ B-cells in pancreatic tissue might have a role in maintain immune homeostasis in the peritoneal cavity, making a substantial contribution to early protection. IgM-secreting cells in HK indicate the presence of systemic IgM at stage 5, before the first IgM+ cells were identified in mucosal sites. This work together with our previous study on T-cell development in this species indicates that although T- and B-cells start to develop around the same time, B-cells migrate to mucosal tissues ahead of T-cells. This early migration likely involves the production of natural antibodies, contributing significantly to early protection. Moreover, a diet composed of barnacle nauplii did not result in an earlier onset of B-cell lymphopoiesis, as seen in the previous study analysing T-cell development. Nevertheless, components for adaptive immunity indicating putative immunocompetence is likely achieved in early juveniles (>100 dph). Additionally, maternal transfer of IgM to the offspring is also described. These findings provide important insights into the development of the immune system in ballan wrasse and lay the foundation for optimizing prophylactic strategies in the future. Furthermore, this work adds valuable information to broaden the knowledge on the immune system in lower vertebrates.

Organisation of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) thymus and its content of Ig-expressing cells.

The thymus of fishes is located as a dual organ in a rostrodorsal projection within the gill chamber and is covered by the operculum. The histological organization of the teleost fish thymus displays considerable diversity, particularly in salmonids where a clear distinction between the thymus cortex and medulla is yet to be defined. Recent interest has focused on the role of B cells in thymic function, but the presence of these cells within the salmon thymus remains poorly understood. In this morphological study, we applied in situ hybridization to investigate developing Atlantic salmon thymi for the expression of recombination activating (Rag) genes 1 and 2. We identified the location of the cortex, aligning with the previously described inner zone. Expression of IgM and IgD transcripts was predominantly observed in cells within the outer and subcapsular zones, with lesser expression in the cortex and inner zone. IgT expression was confined to a limited number of cells in the inner zone and capsule. The location of the thymus medulla could not be established. Our results are discussed in the context of the recently identified lymphoid organs, namely the intrabranchial lymphoid tissue (ILT) and the salmon bursa.

A novel long non-coding RNA linc-93.2 participates in bisphenol induced oxidative stress and macrophage polarization in red common carp (Cyprinus carpio).

Previous studies show that bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogs induce oxidative stress and promote inflammatory response. However, the key molecules in regulating this process remain unclear. Here, we report significant inductive effects of BPA and bisphenol AF (BPAF) on a newly found long non-coding RNA linc-93.2 accompanied by oxidative stress and activation of pro-inflammatory pathways in treated fish and fish primary macrophages. Silencing linc-93.2 in fish primary macrophages in vitro or fish in vivo significantly promotes the expression of anti-oxidative stress-related genes and anti-inflammatory cytokines. This inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, showing cell status disruption towards to M2 polarization. Followed by exposure to BPA or BPAF, silencing linc-93.2 in vitro or in vivo significantly attenuates the increased production of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde level aroused by bisphenol treatment, possibly owing to the enhancement of total antioxidant capacity observed in cells and tissue after linc-93.2 knockdown. RNA-sequencing further revealed regulation of nuclear factor-kappa b (NF-κB) in linc-93.2's downstream network, combining with our previous observation on the upstream regulation of linc-93.2 via NF-κB, which together suggest a critical role of linc-93.2 in promoting NF-κB positive feedback loop that may be an important molecular event initiating the immunotoxicity of bisphenols.