Beyond a reference genome: pangenomes and population genomics of underutilized and orphan crops for future food and nutrition security.

Underutilized crops are, by definition, under-researched compared to staple crops yet come with traits that may be especially important given climate change and the need to feed a globally increasing population. These crops are often stress-tolerant, and this combined with unique and beneficial nutritional profiles. Whilst progress is being made by generating reference genome sequences, in this Tansley Review, we show how this is only the very first step. We advocate that going 'beyond a reference genome' should be a priority, as it is only at this stage one can identify the specific genes and the adaptive alleles that underpin the valuable traits. We sum up how population genomic and pangenomic approaches have led to the identification of stress- and disease-tolerant alleles in staple crops and compare this to the small number of examples from underutilized crops. We also demonstrate how previously underutilized crops have benefitted from genomic advances and that many breeding targets in underutilized crops are often well studied in staple crops. This cross-crop population-level resequencing could lead to an understanding of the genetic basis of adaptive traits in underutilized crops. This level of investment may be crucial for fully understanding the value of these crops before they are lost.

Revisiting the versatile buckwheat: reinvigorating genetic gains through integrated breeding and genomics approach.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Emerging insights in buckwheat molecular genetics allow the integration of genomics driven breeding to revive this ancient crop of immense nutraceutical potential from Asia. Out of several thousand known edible plant species, only four crops-rice, wheat, maize and potato provide the largest proportion of daily nutrition to billions of people. While these crops are the primary supplier of carbohydrates, they lack essential amino acids and minerals for a balanced nutrition. The overdependence on only few crops makes the future cropping systems vulnerable to the predicted climate change. Diversifying food resources through incorporation of orphan or minor crops in modern cropping systems is one potential strategy to improve the nutritional security and mitigate the hostile weather patterns. One such crop is buckwheat, which can contribute to the agricultural sustainability as it grows in a wide range of environments, requires relatively low inputs and possess balanced amino acid and micronutrient profiles. Additionally, gluten-free nature of protein and nutraceutical properties of secondary metabolites make the crop a healthy alternative of wheat-based diet in developed countries. Despite enormous potential, efforts for the genetic improvement of buckwheat are considerably lagged behind the conventional cereal crops. With the draft genome sequences in hand, there is a great scope to speed up the progress of genetic improvement of buckwheat. This article outlines the state of the art in buckwheat research and provides concrete perspectives how modern breeding approaches can be implemented to accelerate the genetic gain. Our suggestions are transferable to many minor and underutilized crops to address the issue of limited genetic gain and low productivity.

Orphan crops: their importance and the urgency of improvement.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Due to significant contributions of orphan crops in the economy of the developing world, scientific studies need to be promoted on these little researched but vital crops of smallholder farmers and consumers. Food security is the main challenge in the developing world, particularly in the least developed countries. Orphan crops play a vital role in the food security and livelihood of resource-poor farmers and consumers in these countries. Like major crops, there are members of all food types-cereals, legumes, vegetables and root and tuber crops, that are considered to be orphan crops. Despite their huge importance for present and future agriculture, orphan crops have generally received little attention by the global scientific community. Due to this, they produce inferior yields in terms of both quantity and quality. The major bottlenecks affecting the productivity of these crops are little or no selection of improved genetic traits, extreme environmental conditions and unfavorable policy. However, some orphan crops have recently received the attention of the global and national scientific community where advanced research and development initiatives have been launched. These initiatives which implement a variety of genetic and genomic tools targeted major constraints affecting productivity and/or nutritional quality of orphan crops. In this paper, some of these initiatives are briefly described. Here, I provide key suggestions to relevant stakeholders regarding improvement of orphan crops. Concerted efforts are urgently needed to advance the research and development of both the major and orphan crops so that food security will be achieved and ultimately the livelihood of the population will be improved.

A transcriptome screen for positive selection in domesticated breadfruit and its wild relatives (Artocarpus spp.).

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Underutilized crops, such as breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis, Moraceae) have the potential to improve global food security. Humans have artificially selected many cultivars of breadfruit since its domestication began approximately 3500 years ago. The goal of this research was to identify transcriptomic signals of positive selection and to develop genomic resources that may facilitate the development of improved breadfruit cultivars in the future. METHODS: A reference transcriptome of breadfruit was assembled de novo and annotated. Twenty-four transcriptomes of breadfruit and its wild relatives were generated and analyzed to reveal signals of positive selection that may have resulted from local adaptation or natural selection. Emphasis was placed on MADS-box genes, which are important because they often regulate fruiting timing and structures, and on carotenoid biosynthesis genes, which can impact the nutritional quality of the fruit. KEY RESULTS: Over 1000 genes showed signals of positive selection, and these genes were enriched for localization to plastids. Nucleotide sites and individuals under positive selection were discovered in MADS-box genes and carotenoid biosynthesis genes, with several sites located in cofactor or DNA-binding domains. A McDonald-Kreitman test comparing wild to cultivated samples revealed selection in one of the carotenoid biosynthesis genes, abscisic acid 8'-hydroxylase 3. CONCLUSIONS: This research highlights some of the many genes that may have been intentionally or unintentionally selected for during the human-mediated dispersal of breadfruit and stresses the importance of conserving a varied germplasm collection. It has revealed candidate genes for further study and produced new genomic resources for breadfruit.

Storable, neglected, and underutilized species of Southern Africa for greater agricultural resilience.

The Southern African region suffers from drought and food system uncertainty with increased risks due to climate change, natural disasters, and global catastrophes. Increasing crop diversity with more appropriate and resilient crops is an effective way of increasing food system resilience. We focus on crop species that are native or naturalized to an area because of their increased resilience than those that are not naturally occurring. Additionally, crops that are easily stored are more useful in times of drought and disaster. In this systematic review, we use scientific interest in neglected and underutilized species (NUS) from Southern Africa to help define next steps toward their cultivation and development as a marketable crop. We found that although scientific interest is minimal for storable Southern African NUS, these crops are worth scaling up due to their economic and nutritional value. We outline next actionable steps and specific NUS for production in a more agrobiodiverse and resilient agriculture system.

Mineral, seed morphology, and agronomic characteristics of proso millet grown in the inland Pacific Northwest.

Climate change increases stressors that will challenge the resiliency of global agricultural production. Just three crops, wheat, maize, and rice, are estimated to sustain 50% of the caloric demand of the world population, meaning that significant loss of any of these crops would threaten global food security. However, increasing cropping system diversity can create a more resilient food system. One crop that could add diversity to wheat-dominated cropping systems in the inland Pacific Northwest is proso millet, a climate-resilient, small-seeded cereal crop that is highly water efficient, able to grow in low fertility soils, and has a desirable nutritional profile. Proso millet shows potential for adoption in this region due to its short growing season, compatibility with regional equipment, and environmental requirements, however US cultivars have been developed for the Great Plains and little research has been conducted outside of this region. To better understand the potential for adoption in the inland PNW, seven commercially available varieties were planted in a researcher-run trial in Pullman, WA and in a series of producer-run trials across the region in 2022. Samples were analyzed for mineral concentration (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg, Ca, P, and K), seed morphology phenotypes (seed area, seed eccentricity, thousand seed weight, and seed color), and agronomic phenotypes (grain yield, plant height, days to heading, days to maturity, and percent emergence). Varieties from the researcher-run trial showed significant differences for all traits excluding percent emergence. Samples from producer-run trials showed differences by location for concentration of all minerals and for all seed morphology traits but were not analyzed for agronomic phenotypes. Samples from producer-run trials showed no difference by variety for mineral concentration but showed varietal differences for all seed morphology phenotypes. Most minerals were positively correlated with one another (0.28 < r < 0.92). Grain yield was negatively correlated with Zn (r = -0.55, p < 0.01) and was positively correlated with plant height (r = 0.62, p < 0.001), seed area (r = 0.45, p < 0.05), and thousand seed weight (r = 0.45, p < 0.05). Results from this study can inform variety selection for stakeholders interested in adopting proso millet in the inland PNW and can support future proso millet breeding efforts, particularly in this region.

Edible Fruits from the Ecuadorian Amazon: Ethnobotany, Physicochemical Characteristics, and Bioactive Components.

In the Ecuadorian Amazon region, there are various types of edible fruits that have distinct qualities and benefits. Understanding the uses, properties, and functions of these fruits is important for researching products that are only available in local markets. This review aims to gather and summarize the existing scientific literature on the ethnobotany, physicochemical composition, and bioactive compounds of these native fruits to highlight the potential of the region's underutilized biodiversity. A systematic review was carried out following the PRISMA methodology, utilizing databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, Redalyc, and SciELO up to August 2023. The research identified 55 edible fruits from the Ecuadorian Amazon and reported their ethnobotanical information. The most common uses were fresh fruit consumption, preparation of typical food, and medicine. Additionally, nine native edible fruits were described for their physicochemical characteristics and bioactive components: Aphandra natalia (Balslev and Henderson) Barfod; Eugenia stipitate McVaugh; Gustavia macarenensis Philipson; Mauritia flexuosa L.f; Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh; Oenocarpus bataua Mart; Plukenetia volubilis L.; Pouteria caimito (Ruiz and Pav.) Radlk.; and Solanum quitoense Lam. The analyzed Amazonian fruits contained bioactive compounds such as total polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. This information highlights their potential as functional foods and the need for further research on underutilized crops.

Suitability and Potential Nutrient Contribution of Underutilized Foods in Community-Based Infant Foods in Northern Ghana.

In rural Ghana, infant feeding is largely home-based or community-based yet less is known about the kinds of community-based infant foods and the ability of families to create a range of recipes for baby feeding using context-specific ingredients particularly in northern Ghana which has a high prevalence of malnutrition. In this explorative study on mothers (15-49 years; n = 46), we investigated community-based infant foods' food group composition, enrichment, nutrient contribution, and acceptability. The identified community-based infant foods were mainly made of either corn or millet porridges in northern Ghana and had three nutrients with % RNI ≥ 70. We developed 38 recipes of enriched community-based infant foods adding underutilized foods (orange-fleshed sweet potato, pawpaw, cowpea, moringa, groundnut, Bambara beans, and soya beans) to increase the number of nutrients from three to at least five and at most nine nutrients with % RNI ≥ 70 based on the recipe combinations. The enriched community-based infant food recipes provided adequate caloric amounts and modest improvements in micronutrient content for infants (6-12 months). All recipes tested were deemed appropriate and acceptable for infants by mothers. Moringa and pawpaw emerged as the lowest-cost ingredients to add among the underutilized foods. Future research is necessary to assess the effectiveness of the new recipes at promoting linear growth and improving micronutrient status during the complementary feeding period.

Functional divergence of Heat Shock Factors (Hsfs) during heat stress and recovery at the tissue and developmental scales in C4 grain amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus).

Two major future challenges are an increase in global earth temperature and a growing world population, which threaten agricultural productivity and nutritional food security. Underutilized crops have the potential to become future climate crops due to their high climate-resilience and nutritional quality. In this context, C4 pseudocereals such as grain amaranths are very important as C4 crops are more heat tolerant than C3 crops. However, the thermal sensitivity of grain amaranths remains unexplored. Here, Amaranthus hypochondriacus was exposed to heat stress at the vegetative and reproductive stages to capture heat stress and recovery responses. Heat Shock Factors (Hsfs) form the central module to impart heat tolerance, thus we sought to identify and characterize Hsf genes. Chlorophyll content and chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) reduced significantly during heat stress, while malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased, suggesting that heat exposure caused stress in the plants. The genome-wide analysis led to the identification of thirteen AhHsfs, which were classified into A, B and C classes. Gene expression profiling at the tissue and developmental scales resolution under heat stress revealed the transient upregulation of most of the Hsfs in the leaf and inflorescence tissues, which reverted back to control levels at the recovery time point. However, a few Hsfs somewhat sustained their upregulation during recovery phase. The study reported the identification, physical location, gene/motif structure, promoter analysis and phylogenetic relationships of Hsfs in Amaranthus hypochondriacus. Also, the genes identified may be crucial for future gene functional studies and develop thermotolerant cultivars.

Sustainable Nonfarm Approaches to Achieve Zero Hunger and Its Unveiled Reality.

Millions of people worldwide are deprived of sufficient, safe, and nutritious food required for an everyday and healthy life. The hunger crisis is worsening over time, even though many attempts have been made to minimize it. Increasing world population and competition for natural resources, climate change, natural disasters, urbanization, poverty, and illiteracy are the main causes that need to be addressed to reduce the hunger crisis. Various nonfarm technologies are being used to eradicate hunger but their long-term impact on the environment should also be considered. The real sustainability of several novel technologies being implemented to deal with hunger is an issue to tackle. This paper discusses the potential applications of storage facilities, underutilized crops, waste valorization, food preservation, nutritionally enriched novel food products, and technological advancement in food processing to achieve zero hunger. An attempt has also been made to address the sustainability of various nonfarm technology utilized to minimize the global hunger crisis.

Optimization of Enzyme-Assisted Mechanical Extraction Process of Hodgsonia heteroclita Oilseeds and Physical, Chemical, and Nutritional Properties of the Oils.

Hodgsonia heteroclita subsp. Indochinensis W.J.de Wlide & Duyfjes (or Making in Thai) is a neglected and underutilized crop (NUC) with high fat containing nuts. In this study, the enzyme-assisted mechanical extraction of H. heteroclita seed oil was investigated using response surface methodology (RSM) to predict the optimal fat extraction conditions. The most efficient enzyme used in the experiment was a mixture of Flavourzyme® and Viscozyme® (1:1, w/w). The predicted maximum oil yield was 46.44%, using the following extraction conditions: 2.98% (w/w) enzyme loading, 48 °C incubation temperature and 76 min of incubation time. H. heteroclita seed oil obtained from heat and enzymatic pretreatments exhibited the highest lightness and viscosity. The chemical properties of this seed oil, including water and volatile compounds (≤0.2% w/w), acid value (≤4.0 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (≤15 mEq of active oxygen/kg) and soap content (≤0.005% w/w), were within the acceptable levels specified by the Codex Alimentarius (2019). H. heteroclita seed oil obtained from heat and enzymatic pretreatments contained the highest content of δ-tocopherol (88.29 mg/100 g) and omega-6 fatty acids (48.19 g/100 g). This study is the first to report on the enzyme-assisted mechanical extraction of H. heteroclita oilseeds as a promising plant material for vegetable oil production.

Nutrition security, constraints, and agro-diversification strategies of neglected and underutilized crops to fight global hidden hunger.

Introduction: Neglected and underutilized crop species (NUCS) or forbidden crops offer tremendous potential to combat malnutrition, poverty, and global hidden hunger. Since overdependence on a few dominant cereal crops, viz., rice, maize, and wheat, is insufficient to meet the global food energy intake, the identification, genetic improvement, and implementation of various policies for wenumerates comprehensive comparative analyses of the nutrient profile of staple crops vs. potent underutilized crops with reference to cultivation constraints and climate resilience with different agro-diversification strategies. Methodology: The research databases Scopus, JSTOR, Web of Science, EBSCO, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Academic Search were searched using relevant research queries. Result: Out of 2,345 hits, 99 articles pertinent to the subject domain showed that underutilized crops are nutritionally superior, contain health-promoting bioactive components, and are more climate resilient than cereal crops. However, several constraints hinder the efficient utilization of these crops. Discussion: Despite underutilized crops' many health benefits, improved cultivation techniques for the large-scale production of these crops are still in their infancy. Most of the time, however, the scientific knowledge gleaned from various study domains stays within the scientific community. The most crucial need of the hour, therefore, is an efficient network structure connecting governments, farmers, researchers, and people in business. Moreover, care must be taken to ensure that the policies of governments and INGOs/NGOs are properly implemented within a NUCS framework.

Linking breadfruit cultivar names across the globe connects histories after 230 years of separation.

Every crop has a story. The story of breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), an increasingly valued staple crop in tropical agroforestry systems, is filled with intrigue, oppression, and remains incomplete. The Caribbean is a major producer and consumer of breadfruit, yet most breadfruit there came from a single 1793 introduction aimed at providing a cheap food source for slaves forced to work on British plantations. St. Vincent was the first significant point of Caribbean introduction and played a vital role in subsequent breadfruit distribution throughout the region. Hundreds of cultivars are documented in breadfruit's native Oceania. It remains a mystery, however, which ones were introduced to the Caribbean 230 years ago-still comprising the vast diversity found there today. Integrating local knowledge, historical documents and specimens, morphological data, and DNA, we identify eight major global breadfruit lineages-five of which are found in the Caribbean and likely represent the original 1793 introduction. Genetic data were able to match two Caribbean cultivar names confidently to their Oceania counterparts. Genetics and morphology together enabled additional possible matches. Many other named cultivars within lineages are too genetically similar to differentiate, highlighting difficulties of defining and identifying variation among clonally propagated triploid crops. Breadfruit is important in resilient agroforestry in tropical islands predicted to be especially affected by climate change. Findings reveal global links, building upon collective knowledge that can be used to inform breadfruit management. Results are also summarized in a brochure about breadfruit history and diversity in St. Vincent, and the Caribbean more broadly.

Six Underutilized Grain Crops for Food and Nutrition in China.

Underutilized grain crops are an essential part of the food system that supports humankind. A number of these crops can be found in China, such as barley, buckwheat, broomcorn millet, foxtail millet, oat, and sorghum, which have characteristics such as containing more nutritional elements, being resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses, and having strong adaptability to poor environments. The diversity of these crops provides options for farmers' livelihoods and healthy food for the population. Although some mentioned crops such as barley, oat, and sorghum are not underutilized crops globally, they could be considered underutilized in China as they were more important in the past and could be revitalized for food and nutrition in the future. This paper reviews current progress in research and development in the areas of germplasm resource conservation, variety improvement, cultivation technologies, processing, and the nutrition and benefits of six underutilized grain crops in China. It is concluded that underutilized grain crops could play a critical role in food and nutritional security in China.

Exploring the effects of increasing underutilized crops on consumers' diets: the case of millet in Uganda.

Known in the literature as underutilized, neglected or orphan crops, these crops have been cited as having the potential to improve food and nutritional security. The literature also highlights however that consumers in developing countries are increasingly abandoning their traditional diets that these crops are part of, and are replacing them by western diets. In this context, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the consumption and nutritional implications of expanding the participation of underutilized crops in current diets. This was done using a modified version of the microeconomic consumer problem. This was augmented with a linear constraint using generalized rationing theory that can be found in the economics literature. The method was applied to the case study of the consumption of millet (finger millet, botanical name: Eleusine coracana) by rural, urban-poor and urban-affluent Ugandan socioeconomic groups. The results indicated that millet could contribute to improving the intake of macronutrients and of some micronutrients, though the overall picture is complex. However, under current preferences and given its demand inelasticity, to achieve a substantial increase in the quantity of millet in the diet will require a significant reduction of its price. Otherwise, the net impact on nutrition as measured by the mean adequacy ratio will be only slightly positive for rural and urban-poor households. Our findings indicate that supply-side initiatives aimed at increasing the productivity of underutilized crops (reducing crop price) are likely to produce disappointing results in restoring their importance unless accompanied by specific interventions to expand demand. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40100-021-00206-3.

Partnership for International Development: Finland-Nigeria Conference on Climate, Food, Health and Entrepreneurship.

A joint collaboration between the Arctic Centre of the University of Lapland, Finland and the Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi, Lagos, Nigeria was organised as a hybrid conference on several topics that are related to climate, food, health and entrepreneurship. The utilisation of natural resources in both regions is an important theme in meeting the sustainable development goals agenda. The topics discussed were multidisciplinary, they include Nigerian indigenous foods, bioeconomy, circular economy, nutrition, health, innovation and entrepreneurship under four themes (Climate, Food, Health and Entrepreneurship). There were dignitaries from Finland and Nigeria. The presenters are researchers from Nigerian universities (University of Ibadan, University of Abuja and Eko university, Lagos), Nigerian Federal Institute of Industrial research centre and from the Finnish side we have the university of Lapland, Rovaniemi, University of Oulu, Oulu and the Centria University of Applied Sciences, Kokkola. The topics discussed will serve as training materials for students and learners, the discussion focussed on research opportunities for institutions in both countries. The experts from both countries will continue to dialogue on the possibility of promoting common topics as research agenda in these important areas with the possibilities of creating more jobs.

Prospects for the utilization of Senna obtusifolia products as protein supplements for poultry.

The scarcity and high cost of conventional ingredients are major factors limiting the growth of the poultry industry globally. This has driven research into alternative ingredients for poultry feeding. Senna obtusifolia or cassia, a widely distributed shrub, is invasive in many regions of the world. The seeds and leaves of the plant are moderate protein sources with the protein having an acceptable amino acid profile, especially essential amino acids. This nutritional profile of Senna obtusifolia products (seeds and leaves), coupled with their availability make them potential protein supplements for poultry feeding; however, the presence of several antinutritional factors (ANFs) (Oxalate, phytate, saponins, tannins and haemagglutinins) hinders their fullest use in the diet. In recent years, there has been increasing research interest into processing techniques to reduce the ANFs content and make these products safe for poultry feeding. Depending on birds age, fermented Senna seed meal may be included in the diet of broilers and cockerels up to 200 g/kg without compromising birds' performance but raw meal as low as 50 g/kg exerts antinutritional effects. More research is needed into maximum utilization of Senna products to reduce cost of production on smallholder to medium scale poultry farms. Newer processing methods will need to be developed in response to the increasing market price of conventional protein sources.

Multi-Criteria Analysis for the Prioritization of Areas for the In Situ Conservation of Crataegus L., an Underutilized Fruit Tree in Mexico.

Complementary ex situ and in situ conservation, including the on-farm alternative, is a highly desired and dynamic strategy that allows the natural evolution of the conserved germplasm. Due to the high costs involved, in addition to the limitations of both economic and human resources, in situ conservation must focus on areas where the greatest benefits are obtained, and the efforts made result in better impacts. Therefore, using spatial multi-criteria analysis and expert knowledge, 22 and 23 criteria were obtained as important for the conservation of wild and cultivated hawthorn, respectively. Criteria weights were calculated by the analytic hierarchy process and expert knowledge. The results showed species richness, phenotypic and ecogeographic diversity, and areas not covered by the official protected areas network were the most important criteria for in situ conservation of wild hawthorn. Prioritized areas were particularly focused in Chiapas, State of Mexico and Morelos. The prioritized areas for the in situ conservation of cultivated hawthorn were mostly defined by criteria such as number of cultivated varieties, number of uses, phenotypic diversity, ecogeographical diversity, and areas with rainfed agriculture. These areas were located mainly in Puebla. From this study, we propose a list of priority areas for the in situ conservation of both cultivated and wild hawthorn.

Bambara Groundnut: An Underutilized Leguminous Crop for Global Food Security and Nutrition.

Rapid population growth, climate change, intensive monoculture farming, and resource depletion are among the challenges that threaten the increasingly vulnerable global agri-food system. Heavy reliance on a few major crops is also linked to a monotonous diet, poor dietary habits, and micronutrient deficiencies, which are often associated with diet-related diseases. Diversification-of both agricultural production systems and diet-is a practical and sustainable approach to address these challenges and to improve global food and nutritional security. This strategy is aligned with the recommendations from the EAT-Lancet report, which highlighted the urgent need for increased consumption of plant-based foods to sustain population and planetary health. Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.), an underutilized African legume, has the potential to contribute to improved food and nutrition security, while providing solutions for environmental sustainability and equity in food availability and affordability. This paper discusses the potential role of Bambara groundnut in diversifying agri-food systems and contributing to enhanced dietary and planetary sustainability, with emphasis on areas that span the value chain: from genetics, agroecology, nutrition, processing, and utilization, through to its socioeconomic potential. Bambara groundnut is a sustainable, low-cost source of complex carbohydrates, plant-based protein, unsaturated fatty acids, and essential minerals (magnesium, iron, zinc, and potassium), especially for those living in arid and semi-arid regions. As a legume, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen to improve soil fertility. It is resilient to adverse environmental conditions and can yield on poor soil. Despite its impressive nutritional and agroecological profile, the potential of Bambara groundnut in improving the global food system is undermined by several factors, including resource limitation, knowledge gap, social stigma, and lack of policy incentives. Multiple research efforts to address these hurdles have led to a more promising outlook for Bambara groundnut; however, there is an urgent need to continue research to realize its full potential.

Optimizing Traditional Cropping Systems Under Climate Change: A Case of Maize Landraces and Bambara Groundnut.

Traditional crop species are reported to be drought-tolerant and nutrient-dense with potential to contribute to sustainable food and nutrition security within marginal production systems under climate change. We hypothesized that intercropping maize landraces (Zea mays L.) with bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.), together with optimum management strategies, can improve productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) under climate change. Using an ex-ante approach, we assessed climate change impacts and agronomic management options, such as plant ratios, and plant sequences, on yield and WUE of intercropped maize landrace and bambara groundnut. The Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) model was applied over four time periods; namely past (1961-1991), present (1995-2025), mid-century (2030-2060) and late-century (2065-2095), obtained from six GCMs. Across timescales, there were no significant differences with mean annual rainfall, but late century projections of mean annual temperature and reference crop evaporation (ET0) showed average increases of 3.5°C and 155mm, respectively. By late century and relative to the present, the projected changes in yield and WUE were -10 and -15% and 5 and 7% for intercropped bambara groundnut and maize landrace, respectively. Regardless of timescale, increasing plant population improved yield and WUE of intercropped bambara groundnut. Asynchronous planting increased yield and WUE for both maize landrace (5 and 14%) and bambara groundnut (35 and 47%, respectively). Most significant improvements were observed when either crop was planted 2-3 months apart. To reduce yield gaps in intercrop systems, low-cost management options like changing plant populations and sequential cropping can increase yield and WUE under projected climate change. To further increase sustainability, there is a need to expand the research to consider other management strategies such as use of other traditional crop species, fertilization, rainwater harvesting and soil conservation techniques.