Large-scale individual monitoring of internal contamination by gamma-emitting radionuclides in nuclear accident scenarios.

The results obtained in a measurement campaign concerning internal contamination by the gamma-emitting radionuclides of a large number of individuals are presented in this work. The aim is to assess the effectiveness of the spectrometric method in an emergency response following a nuclear power plant accident or a spread of radionuclides in the atmosphere due to an act of terrorism. An HPGe portable spectrometer, deployed in a collective protection apparatus, was used for both whole-body and thyroid measurements. An adult bottle mannequin absorption (BOMAB) and thyroid phantoms were used to evaluate the detector performance. The BOMAB phantom was provided by the Italian Institute of Ionizing Radiation Metrology (INMRI) for the ENEA intercomparison exercise. Thyroid phantoms were provided by the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre for the 'Child and Adult Thyroid Monitoring After Reactor Accident' European intercomparison exercise. The instrument performance was further evaluated by collecting spectral data from healthy volunteers, using acquisition times of 180 s and 100 s, respectively, for the whole-body and thyroid measurements. The detector showed good accuracy in quantifying radionuclide activities in the adult BOMAB and in the thyroids of persons of all ages. The proposed method allows us to detect in vivo activity leading to a committed effective dose E(50) and committed thyroid equivalent doses H T greater than 2 mSv due to all gamma-emitting fission products, if the scan is performed within five days after intake. Assuming, for instance, an acute inhalation of 137Cs and 131I, the obtained detection limit values for adults lead to a E(50) value equal to 0.08 mSv and an H T value of 0.27 mSv. The E(50) and H T values show that the proposed method can be successfully used when the dose assessment must be rapidly performed for a large number of individuals in the eventuality of the scenarios previously mentioned.

How Low Can We Go in Radiation Dose for the Data-Completion Scan on a Research Whole-Body Photon-Counting Computed Tomography System.

PURPOSE: A research photon-counting computed tomography (CT) system that consists of an energy-integrating detector (EID) and a photon-counting detector (PCD) was installed in our laboratory. The scanning fields of view of the EID and PCD at the isocenter are 500 and 275 mm, respectively. When objects are larger than the PCD scanning field of view, a data-completion scan (DCS) using the EID subsystem is needed to avoid truncation artifacts in PCD images. The goals of this work were to (1) find the impact of a DCS on noise of PCD images and (2) determine the lowest possible dose for a DCS such that truncation artifacts are negligible in PCD images. METHODS: First, 2 semianthropomorphic abdomen phantoms were scanned on the PCD subsystem. For each PCD scan, we acquired 1 DCS with the maximum effective mAs and 5 with lower effective mAs values. The PCD image reconstructed using the maximum effective mAs was considered as the reference image, and those using the lower effective mAs as the test images. The PCD image reconstructed without a DCS was considered the baseline image. Each PCD image was assessed in terms of noise and CT number uniformity; the results were compared among the baseline, test, and reference images. Finally, the impact of a DCS on PCD image quality was qualitatively assessed for other body regions using an anthropomorphic torso phantom. RESULTS: The DCS had a negligible impact on the noise magnitude in the PCD images. The PCD images with the minimum available dose (CTDIvol < 2 mGy) showed greatly enhanced CT number uniformity compared with the baseline images without noticeable truncation artifacts. Further increasing the effective mAs of a DCS did not yield noticeable improvement in CT number uniformity. CONCLUSIONS: A DCS using the minimum available dose had negligible effect on image noise and was sufficient to maintain satisfactory CT number uniformity for the PCD scans.

Review of methods to measure internal contamination in an emergency.

In the event of a radiation emergency, people close to the site of the incident may be exposed to radiation by external exposure, or as a result of intakes of radioactive material. For these incidents it may be necessary to monitor members of the public both for external and internal contamination. This work reviews currently available equipment for the assessment of internal exposure following an emergency. It concentrates on incidents involving the spread of radioactive material and on contamination by radionuclides which emit penetrating radiation. It is essential that this monitoring is carried out as soon as possible so that people who have been exposed at a level which could have an effect on health can be identified and receive prompt medical assessment. Proposed action levels to identify people who need medical attention are reviewed to determine the required sensitivity of monitoring equipment. For releases containing gamma-ray emitting radionuclides the best means of measuring internal contamination is to use detectors placed close to the body (whole body or partial body monitoring). Laboratory based whole body monitors could be used but these may well be inconveniently located and so equipment which can be deployed to the site of an incident has been developed and these are described. The need for rapid selection and prioritisation of people for monitoring, methods to deal with potentially high numbers of contaminated people and the requirement for a means of rapidly interpreting monitoring information are also discussed.It has been found that for many types of incidents and scenarios, systems based on unshielded high-resolution detectors and hand-held instruments do have the required sensitivity to identify people who require medical assessment.

Luminescence-based retrospective dosimetry using Al2O3 from mobile phones: a simulation approach to determine the effects of position.

Monte Carlo modelling has been performed in support of efforts to establish emergency dosimetry services based on optically or thermally stimulated luminescence (OSL/TL) of the Al(2)O(3) substrate present on the resistors found in mobile phones, which can act as fortuitous retrospective dosemeters for photon exposures. Specifically, a range of exposure conditions has been modelled to assess the dependence of the dosimetry on factors such as the position of resistors within a phone, the orientation of the phone relative to the source, and the location of the phone relative to its owner. Variations due to the resistors' positions and the phone's orientation were generally found to contribute just a few percent to the uncertainty on the dose assessments, though the electrical contacts surrounding the resistors could potentially enhance these by several 10s of percent. But, the location of the phone was found to impact dosimetry greatly. The largest discrepancies in the results were found for low-energy exposures: for (192)Ir, differences of up to an order-of-magnitude were found between resistor and whole body doses. The outcome of the work was to derive correction / calibration factors that can be applied to estimate whole body doses from OSL/TL readings, the accurate application of which would depend on the knowledge of the exposure geometry and the degree of conservatism acceptable for the dose assessment.

Evaluation of organ doses and effective dose according to the ICRP Publication 110 reference male/female phantom and the modified ImPACT CT patient dosimetry.

We modified the Imaging Performance Assessment of CT scanners (ImPACT) to evaluate the organ doses and the effective dose based on the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) Publication 110 reference male/female phantom with the Aquilion ONE ViSION Edition scanner. To select the new CT scanner, the measurement results of the CTDI100,c and CTDI100,p for the 160 (head) and the 320 (body) mm polymethylmethacrylate phantoms, respectively, were entered on the Excel worksheet. To compute the organ doses and effective dose of the ICRP reference male/female phantom, the conversion factors obtained by comparison between the organ doses of different types of phantom were applied. The organ doses and the effective dose were almost identical for the ICRP reference male/female and modified ImPACT. The results of this study showed that, with the dose assessment of the ImPACT, the difference in sex influences only testes and ovaries. Because the MIRD-5 phantom represents a partially hermaphrodite adult, the phantom has the dimensions of the male reference man including testes, ovaries, and uterus but no female breasts, whereas the ICRP male/female phantom includes whole-body male and female anatomies based on high-resolution anatomical datasets. The conversion factors can be used to estimate the doses of a male and a female accurately, and efficient dose assessment can be performed with the modified ImPACT.

A study of CT dose distribution in an elliptical phantom and the influence of automatic tube current modulation in the x-y plane.

Computed tomography (CT) performance assessments relating to patient dose to the body are made conventionally in 320 mm diameter cylindrical acrylic phantoms. The cross section of the human trunk is closer to an ellipse and automatic tube current modulation (ATCM) systems adjust the exposure level with orientation in the x-y plane, changing the dose distribution within the body. This study has investigated differences in the distributions of dose within a standard cylindrical body phantom and an elliptical dosimetry phantom for Toshiba, General Electric and Philips CT scanners, and recorded changes with the application of the ATCM. Single slice dose profiles have been recorded within the phantoms using Gafchromic film. CT dose indices along 100 mm lengths have been calculated and data sets combined to simulate helical scans, from which values for cumulative doses have been derived. The doses in the centre of the elliptical phantom are 70-100% larger than for the cylindrical one and in the anterior are around 20-40% larger, while the doses in the lateral positions are similar for the two phantom shapes. The differences between the anterior and lateral doses were larger for the Toshiba scanner and this is thought to be linked to the narrower profile of the beam produced by the bow-tie filter. When the ATCM mode for the Toshiba scanner is implemented, the doses in the anterior and posterior positions are reduced preferentially, bringing them closer to the doses in the lateral positions.

Assessment of eye and body dose for interventional radiologists, cardiologists, and other interventional staff.

A dose limit for the eye of 20 mSv, as proposed by the ICRP, could be exceeded by interventional clinicians. Data on eye dose levels for interventional radiologists and cardiologists provided by medical physicists from hospitals around the UK have been collated. The results indicate that most hospitals would require one or more interventional clinicians to be classified and several would have exceeded a 20 mSv limit. Dose data in the literature have been reviewed to derive factors that might be used to predict eye dose levels based on dose per procedure or kerma-area product workload. These could be used in prior risk assessments to establish monitoring practice. An alternative approach to personnel dose monitoring in radiology applications using a collar dosimeter worn outside the lead apron as the first dosimeter is proposed. The collar dosimeter would provide an assessment of eye dose in terms of Hp(3) and body dose in terms of Hp(10), which could be divided by ten to provide an assessment of effective dose. If Hp(3) exceeded 1 mSv per month, regular monitoring with a head dosimeter would be recommended, and if Hp(10) exceeded 2 mSv per month, then an under-apron dosimeter should also be worn.

Systematic measurements of whole-body dose distributions for various treatment machines and delivery techniques in radiation therapy.

PURPOSE: Contemporary radiotherapy treatment techniques, such as intensity-modulated radiation therapy and volumetric modulated arc therapy, could increase the radiation-induced malignancies because of the increased beam-on time, i.e., number of monitor units needed to deliver the same dose to the target and the larger volume irradiated with low doses. In this study, whole-body dose distributions from typical radiotherapy patient plans using different treatment techniques and therapy machines were measured using the same measurement setup and irradiation intention. METHODS: Individually calibrated thermoluminescent dosimeters were used to measure absorbed dose in an anthropomorphic phantom at 184 locations. The dose distributions from 6 MV beams were compared in terms of treatment technique (3D-conformal, intensity-modulated radiation therapy, volumetric modulated arc therapy, helical TomoTherapy, stereotactic radiotherapy, hard wedges, and flattening filter-free radiotherapy) and therapy machine (Elekta, Siemens and Varian linear accelerators, Accuray CyberKnife and TomoTherapy). RESULTS: Close to the target, the doses from intensity-modulated treatments (including flattening filter-free) were below the dose from a static treatment plan, whereas the CyberKnife showed a larger dose by a factor of two. Far away from the treatment field, the dose from intensity-modulated treatments showed an increase in dose from stray radiation of about 50% compared to the 3D-conformal treatment. For the flattening filter-free photon beams, the dose from stray radiation far away from the target was slightly lower than the dose from a static treatment. The CyberKnife irradiation and the treatment using hard wedges increased the dose from stray radiation by nearly a factor of three compared to the 3D-conformal treatment. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the dose outside of the treated volume is influenced by several sources. Therefore, when comparing different treatment techniques, the dose ratios vary with distance to the isocenter. The effective dose outside the treated volume of intensity-modulated treatments with or without flattening filter was 10%-30% larger when compared to 3D-conformal radiotherapy. This dose increase is much lower than the monitor unit scaled effective dose from a static treatment.

Comparison of Indian BOMAB and ICRP voxel phantom for calibration of shadow shield whole body counter.

In-vivo whole body monitors are calibrated with various types of phantoms like Bottle Mannikin absorption phantom (BOMAB), IGOR phantom, Masonite cut sheet phantom, realistic numerical phantoms (NORMAN, ICRP voxel phantom). These phantoms contain either point sources, rod sources, uniform source or radionuclides distributed in soft tissues etc. In this study the efficiency values of Shadow Shield wholebody counter (SSC) for 137Cs and 60Co obtained theoretically using ICRP adult voxel male reference phantom (ICRP-AM) having sources distributed in soft tissues and muscles ICRP-AM(S) are compared with the measured efficiencies of Indian BOMAB phantom having mid axial source distribution (BOM-I(A)). The results show that the efficiency value of BOM-I(A) for 137Cs and 60Co is 30% and 20% lower respectively compared to that of ICRP-AM(S). This is due to the variation in size, composition and source distribution between the two phantoms. Study using Indian Voxel phantom shows that the increase in the size of ICRP-AM contributed to an increase of 14% for 137Cs. In case of 60Co the size did not have any influence. Uniform distribution has 9% and 17% higher efficiency than axial distribution for 137Cs and 60Co respectively as shown by the simulation study using uniformly filled Indian BOMAB phantom (BOM-I(U)). The actual tissue composition and source distribution in soft tissue as shown by Indian voxel has efficiencies 12-14% higher compared to BOM-I(U). The systemic error due to the axial source distribution is recognized and quantified to be 22-25% lower compared to that of a realistic phantom with radionuclides in soft tissue and muscle. This study has resulted in an efficiency of the system using Indian realistic Voxel phantom. The efficiencies are 0.65 CPS/kBq for 137Cs and 0.49 CPS/kBq for 60Co.

Measuring whole-body neutrophil redistribution using a dedicated whole-body counter and ultra-low doses of 111Indium.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing interest in the 'homing' of neutrophils to bone marrow. The aim of this study was to measure the whole-body redistribution of (111) In using a whole-body counter following the administration of ultra-small activities of (111) In-labelled neutrophils. METHODS: The detectors of a dedicated whole-body counter were fitted with lead collimators. Whole-body (111) In distribution was recorded at 45 min, 24 h, and 2, 4, 7 and 10 days after administration of (111) In-labelled neutrophils (0·29-0·74 MBq) in eight healthy non-smokers, five healthy smokers, eight patients with inactive bronchiectasis, three with asthma and nine with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). RESULTS: Intravascular 45-min (111) In-labelled neutrophil recovery was not significantly different between groups, ranging from 33 (SD 8%) in healthy smokers to 45 (14%) in healthy non-smokers (P > 0·05). Peaks were identified on the whole body count profile corresponding to the chest, upper abdomen (liver/spleen) and pelvis (bone marrow). (111) In distribution changed between 45 min and 24 h and then remained stable thereafter. Peak chest counts increased ∼ 1·5-fold between 45 min and 24 h, whereas upper abdominal peak counts decreased by ∼ 25% with no significant inter-group differences. The increment in pelvic counts (∼ 2·7-fold) was similar between groups, except COPD patients, in whom it was 2·04 (0·35; P < 0·02 vs. healthy participants). CONCLUSIONS: Assuming neutrophils are distributed only between blood, liver, spleen and bone marrow, the data suggest that marrow pools 25% and destroys 67% of circulating neutrophils, rising in COPD to 40% and 80%, respectively, possibly as a result of the effects on marrow of chronic hypoxaemia.

Application of Gafchromic film in the study of dosimetry methods in CT phantoms.

Gafchromic film has been used for measurement of computed tomography (CT) dose distributions within phantoms. The film was calibrated in the beam from a superficial therapy unit and the accuracy confirmed by comparison with measurements with a 20 mm long ionisation chamber. The results have been used to investigate approaches to CT dosimetry. Dose profiles were recorded within standard CT head and body phantoms and scatter tail data fitted to exponential functions and extrapolated to predict dose levels in longer phantoms. The data have been used to simulate both CT dose index (CTDI) measurements with ionisation chambers of differing length and measurements of cumulative doses with a 20 mm chamber for scans of varying length. The results show that the length of a pencil ionisation chamber is the most significant factor affecting measurements of weighted CTDI (CTDI(w)) and a 100 mm chamber would record 50-61% of the dose measured with a 450 mm one. The cumulative dose measured at the centre of a 150 mm long body phantom records over 70% of the equilibrium dose from a helical scan of a longer phantom. For routine CT dosimetry tests, the determination of correction factors could allow measurements with a 100 mm chamber to be used to derive the CTDI that would be recorded with a longer chamber, and cumulative doses measured with a 20 mm chamber in shorter phantoms to be used to calculate equilibrium doses for helical scans.

Developments in in vivo monitoring for radionuclides at AWE.

The Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE) has routinely used high purity germanium crystals for in vivo monitoring, detection and measurement of radionuclides in the chest, wounds and whole body of personnel over the past 30 years. However, recent organisational changes have resulted in the relocation and modification of this capability. Hence, this paper reviews and compares the performance of the original twin six crystal detector arrays (contained within environmental radiation shielding), that were first used at AWE in 1980, with the latest unshielded systems that employ smaller numbers of larger crystals. It has been concluded that the required sensitivity of 20 mSv for actinides in the chest was achieved using the recently procured twin dual crystal detector arrays outside of the conventional heavy duty environmental radiation shield used with the original system. Sensitivities of around 1 µSv, for fission and activation products in the whole body and around 1 mSv, for actinides in wounds, were achieved using single large collimated, but otherwise unshielded, detectors.

A methodology to evaluate occupational internal exposure to fluorine-18.

The objective of this work is to develop procedures for internal monitoring of (18)F to be applied in cases of possible incorporation of fluoride and (18)FDG, using in vivo and in vitro methods of measurements. The Na I (Tl) 8" x 4" scintillation detector installed at IRD-Whole Body Counter was calibrated for measurements with a whole body anthropomorphic phantom, simulating homogeneous distribution of (18)F in the body. The NaI(Tl) 3"x 3" scintillation detector installed at the IRD-Whole Body Counter was calibrated for in vivo measurements with a brain phantom inserted in an artificial skull, simulating (18)FDG incorporation. The HPGe detection system installed at the IRD-Bioassay Laboratory was calibrated for in vitro measurements of urine samples with 1 liter plastic bottles containing a standard liquid source. A methodology for bioassay data interpretation, based on standard ICRP models edited with the software AIDE-version 6, was established. It is concluded that in vivo measurements have sufficient sensitivity for monitoring (18)F in the forms of fluoride and (18)FDG. The use of both in vitro and in vivo bioassay data can provide useful information for the interpretation of bioassay data in cases of accidental incorporation in order to identify the chemical form of (18)F incorporated.

Validation of a Monte Carlo efficiency calibration procedure for a partial body counter system with a voxel model of the LLNL torso phantom.

Virtual models of real phantoms used with Monte Carlo methods facilitate the calibration and other studies associated with whole-body and partial-body counting systems. In this investigation, a voxel model of an LLNL torso phantom, available physically in the in vivo laboratory at KIT, was created from computed tomography scans. Series of measurements with a high-purity germanium detector and the real torso phantom, loaded with different radioactive organs, have been carried out. Computer simulations of these measurement setups were performed with the aid of MCNPX, using a coarsened voxel phantom and a validated model of the germanium detector. The results of simulations were compared with data from the measurements and an agreement within the uncertainties was found. The voxel model could therefore be validated. The results of the simulations were then used to quantify the activity of (241)Am impurities detected in the liver loaded with (239)Pu.

Improvement to whole-body counting procedures at nuclear power plants.

A whole-body counter (WBC) is a device employed in nuclear power plants (NPPs) to identify radionuclides and measure the content of radioactivity in humans. In this study, several experiments were conducted to suggest an optimal and practical method to improve the accuracy of in vivo measurements using WBCs at NPPs. First, countings from the front and back using a phantom were carried out to set up a discrimination programme between internal and external radioactive contamination in NPPs. Second, experiments were performed to select the optimal geometry of the WBC and to locate the contaminated area of radionuclides.

The effect of finite-difference time-domain resolution and power-loss computation method on SAR values in plane-wave exposure of Zubal phantom.

In this paper, the anatomically realistic body model Zubal is exposed to a plane wave. A finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method is used to obtain field data for specific-absorption-rate (SAR) computation. It is investigated how the FDTD resolution, power-loss computation method and positioning of the material voxels in the FDTD grid affect the SAR results. The results enable one to estimate the effects due to certain fundamental choices made in the SAR simulation.

An analysis of dependency of counting efficiency on worker anatomy for in vivo measurements: whole-body counting.

In vivo radiobioassay is integral to many health physics and radiological protection programs dealing with internal exposures. The Bottle Manikin Absorber (BOMAB) physical phantom has been widely used for whole-body counting calibrations. However, the shape of BOMAB phantoms-a collection of plastic, cylindrical shells which contain no bones or internal organs-does not represent realistic human anatomy. Furthermore, workers who come in contact with radioactive materials have rather different body shape and size. To date, there is a lack of understanding about how the counting efficiency would change when the calibrated counter is applied to a worker with complicated internal organs or tissues. This paper presents a study on various in vivo counting efficiencies obtained from Monte Carlo simulations of two BOMAB phantoms and three tomographic image-based models (VIP-Man, NORMAN and CNMAN) for a scenario involving homogeneous whole-body radioactivity contamination. The results reveal that a phantom's counting efficiency is strongly dependent on the shape and size of a phantom. Contrary to what was expected, it was found that only small differences in efficiency were observed when the density and material composition of all internal organs and tissues of the tomographic phantoms were changed to water. The results of this study indicate that BOMAB phantoms with appropriately adjusted size and shape can be sufficient for whole-body counting calibrations when the internal contamination is homogeneous.

Measurement of electric fields induced in a human subject due to natural movements in static magnetic fields or exposure to alternating magnetic field gradients.

A dual dipole electric field probe has been used to measure surface electric fields in vivo on a human subject over a frequency range of 0.1-800 Hz. The low-frequency electric fields were induced by natural body movements such as walking and turning in the fringe magnetic fields of a 3 T magnetic resonance whole-body scanner. The rate-of-change of magnetic field (dB/dt) was also recorded simultaneously by using three orthogonal search coils positioned near to the location of the electric field probe. Rates-of-change of magnetic field for natural body rotations were found to exceed 1 T s(-1) near the end of the magnet bore. Typical electric fields measured on the upper abdomen, head and across the tongue for 1 T s(-1) rate of change of magnetic field were 0.15+/-0.02, 0.077+/-0.003 and 0.015+/-0.002 V m(-1) respectively. Electric fields on the abdomen and chest were measured during an echo-planar sequence with the subject positioned within the scanner. With the scanner rate-of-change of gradient set to 10 T m(-1) s(-1) the measured rate-of-change of magnetic field was 2.2+/-0.1 T s(-1) and the peak electric field was 0.30+/-0.01 V m(-1) on the chest. The values of induced electric field can be related to dB/dt by a 'geometry factor' for a given subject and sensor position. Typical values of this factor for the abdomen or chest (for measured surface electric fields) lie in the range of 0.10-0.18 m. The measured values of electric field are consistent with currently available numerical modelling results for movement in static magnetic fields and exposure to switched magnetic field gradients.

Feasibility study of quantitative radioactivity monitoring of tumor tissues inoculated into mice with a planar positron imaging system (PPIS).

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the radioactivity of tumor tissues inoculated into mice can be monitored quantitatively with a planar positron imaging system (PPIS). METHODS: (18)F-fluoro-D-glucose, (18)F-fluorothymidine, or D-(18)F-fluoromethyl tyrosine were intravenously administered into HeLa-bearing mice. In vivo uptake of each labeled compound in tumors was monitored with the PPIS, followed by the measurement of radioactivity in tumor tissue using tissue dissection analysis. The standardized uptake values (SUVs) in PPIS measurement and ex vivo tissue dissection analysis were derived using the tumor volume and tumor weight, respectively. RESULTS: Radioactivities of tumors in mice obtained via PPIS imaging correlated significantly with those by tissue dissection analysis. The SUV derived by the PPIS data and the estimated tumor volume correlated roughly with those by ex vivo tissue dissection analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our experiment indicate the feasibility of noninvasive, quantitative tumor monitoring in mouse/rat studies with the PPIS.

The NORMAN phantom vs. the BOMAB phantom: are they different?

This paper describes the implementation of the NORMAN phantom with the Human Monitoring Laboratory's Monte Carlo simulator, the problems that were encountered, and their solution. The NORMAN phantom has been compared with the reference man BOMAB phantom in three different whole body counting geometries: a scanning detector system (WBC1), and two stand-up whole body counters (WBC2, WBC3) that have different reference points for their counting geometry. The average agreement (taken over all energies) of the two phantoms is approximately a factor of 1.15 on any given counting system. For the first two systems (WBC1, WBC2) the BOMAB has the highest counting efficiency, whereas it is reversed on the third system (WBC3). Considering the differences between the two phantoms, the agreement is good.