The hagfish genome and the evolution of vertebrates.

As the only surviving lineages of jawless fishes, hagfishes and lampreys provide a crucial window into early vertebrate evolution1-3. Here we investigate the complex history, timing and functional role of genome-wide duplications4-7 and programmed DNA elimination8,9 in vertebrates in the light of a chromosome-scale genome sequence for the brown hagfish Eptatretus atami. Combining evidence from syntenic and phylogenetic analyses, we establish a comprehensive picture of vertebrate genome evolution, including an auto-tetraploidization (1RV) that predates the early Cambrian cyclostome-gnathostome split, followed by a mid-late Cambrian allo-tetraploidization (2RJV) in gnathostomes and a prolonged Cambrian-Ordovician hexaploidization (2RCY) in cyclostomes. Subsequently, hagfishes underwent extensive genomic changes, with chromosomal fusions accompanied by the loss of genes that are essential for organ systems (for example, genes involved in the development of eyes and in the proliferation of osteoclasts); these changes account, in part, for the simplification of the hagfish body plan1,2. Finally, we characterize programmed DNA elimination in hagfish, identifying protein-coding genes and repetitive elements that are deleted from somatic cell lineages during early development. The elimination of these germline-specific genes provides a mechanism for resolving genetic conflict between soma and germline by repressing germline and pluripotency functions, paralleling findings in lampreys10,11. Reconstruction of the early genomic history of vertebrates provides a framework for further investigations of the evolution of cyclostomes and jawed vertebrates.

Inner ear development in cyclostomes and evolution of the vertebrate semicircular canals.

Jawed vertebrates have inner ears with three semicircular canals, the presence of which has been used as a key to understanding evolutionary relationships. Ostracoderms, the jawless stem gnathostomes, had only two canals and lacked the lateral canal1-3. Lampreys, which are modern cyclostomes, are generally thought to possess two semicircular canals whereas the hagfishes-which are also cyclostomes-have only a single canal, which used to be regarded as a more primitive trait1,4. However, recent molecular and developmental analyses have strongly supported the monophyly of cyclostomes5-7, which has left the evolutionary trajectory of the vertebrate inner ear unclear8. Here we show the differentiation of the otic vesicle of the lamprey Lethenteron camtschaticum and inshore hagfish Eptatretus burgeri. This is the first time, to our knowledge, that the development of the hagfish inner ear is reported. We found that canal development in the lamprey starts with two depressions-which is reminiscent of the early developmental pattern of the inner ear in modern gnathostomes. These cyclostome otic vesicles show a pattern of expression of regulatory genes, including OTX genes, that is comparable to that of gnathosomes. Although two depressions appear in the lamprey vesicle, they subsequently fuse to form a single canal that is similar to that of hagfishes. Complete separation of the depressions results in anterior and posterior canals in gnathostomes. The single depression of the vesicle in hagfishes thus appears to be a secondarily derived trait. Furthermore, the lateral canal in crown gnathostomes was acquired secondarily-not by de novo acquisition of an OTX expression domain, but by the evolution of a developmental program downstream of the OTX genes.

Evidence from cyclostomes for complex regionalization of the ancestral vertebrate brain.

The vertebrate brain is highly complex, but its evolutionary origin remains elusive. Because of the absence of certain developmental domains generally marked by the expression of regulatory genes, the embryonic brain of the lamprey, a jawless vertebrate, had been regarded as representing a less complex, ancestral state of the vertebrate brain. Specifically, the absence of a Hedgehog- and Nkx2.1-positive domain in the lamprey subpallium was thought to be similar to mouse mutants in which the suppression of Nkx2-1 leads to a loss of the medial ganglionic eminence. Here we show that the brain of the inshore hagfish (Eptatretus burgeri), another cyclostome group, develops domains equivalent to the medial ganglionic eminence and rhombic lip, resembling the gnathostome brain. Moreover, further investigation of lamprey larvae revealed that these domains are also present, ruling out the possibility of convergent evolution between hagfish and gnathostomes. Thus, brain regionalization as seen in crown gnathostomes is not an evolutionary innovation of this group, but dates back to the latest vertebrate ancestor before the divergence of cyclostomes and gnathostomes more than 500 million years ago.

Craniofacial development of hagfishes and the evolution of vertebrates.

Cyclostomes, the living jawless vertebrates including hagfishes and lampreys, represent the most basal lineage of vertebrates. Although the monophyly of cyclostomes has been supported by recent molecular analyses, the phenotypic traits of hagfishes, especially the lack of some vertebrate-defining features and the reported endodermal origin of the adenohypophysis, have been interpreted as hagfishes exhibiting a more ancestral state than those of all other vertebrates. Furthermore, the adult anatomy of hagfishes cannot be compared easily with that of lampreys. Here we describe the craniofacial development of a series of staged hagfish embryos, which shows that their adenohypophysis arises ectodermally, consistent with the molecular phylogenetic data. This finding also allowed us to identify a pan-cyclostome pattern, one not shared by jawed vertebrates. Comparative analyses indicated that many of the hagfish-specific traits can be explained by changes secondarily introduced into the hagfish lineage. We also propose a possibility that the pan-cyclostome pattern may reflect the ancestral programme for the craniofacial development of all living vertebrates.

The neural crest and origin of the neurocranium in vertebrates.

Cranium of jawed vertebrates is composed of dorsal moiety that encapsulates the brain, or the neurocranium, and the is called the neurocranium, and the ventral moiety, the viscerocranium, that supports the pharynx. In modern jawed vertebrates (crown gnathostomes), the viscerocranium is predominantly of neural crest origin, and for the neurocranium, the rostral part is derived from neural crest cells, whereas the posterior part from the mesoderm. In the cyclostome cranium, the mesoderm/neural crest boundary of the neurocranium used to be enigmatic, let alone the morphological comparison of neurocranial between two cyclostome groups, lampreys and hagfishes. By examining the hagfish development it has become clear that cyclostomes share a common craniofacial embryonic pattern that is not shared by modern gnathostomes, and cyclostome cranium can be compared among the group as developmental modular units with comparable mesoderm/neural crest boundary within the neuroranium. Also, the dual origin of the jawed vertebrate neurocranium has now turned out to represent a derived condition, and ancestrally, the neurocranium would likely have been predominantly of mesodermal origin. Enlargement of the forebrain and reorganization of the oral apparatus seem to have led to the involvement of the neural crest in the rostral neurocranium.

Reconstructing the ancestral vertebrate brain.

Highly complicated morphologies and sophisticated functions of vertebrate brains have been established through evolution. However, the origin and early evolutionary history of the brain remain elusive, owing to lack of information regarding the brain architecture of extant and fossil species of jawless vertebrates (agnathans). Comparative analyses of the brain of less studied cyclostomes (only extant agnathan group, consisting of lampreys and hagfish) with the well-known sister group of jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) are the only tools we have available to illustrate the ancestral architecture of the vertebrate brain. Previous developmental studies had shown that the lamprey lacked well-established brain compartments that are present in gnathostomes, such as the medial ganglionic eminence and the rhombic lip. The most accepted scenario suggested that cyclostomes had fewer compartments than that of the gnathostome brain and that gnathostomes thus evolved by a stepwise addition of innovations on its developmental sequence. However, recent studies have revealed that these compartments are present in hagfish embryos, indicating that these brain regions have been acquired before the split of cyclostomes and gnathostomes. By comparing two cyclostome lineages and gnathostomes, it has become possible to speculate about a more complex ancestral state of the brain, excluding derived traits in either of the lineages. In this review, we summarize recent studies on the brain development of the lamprey and hagfish. Then, we attempt to reconstruct the possible brain architecture of the last common ancestor of vertebrates. Finally, we discuss how the developmental plan of the vertebrate brain has been modified independently in different vertebrate lineages.

Evolution of the Vertebrate Cranium: Viewed from Hagfish Developmental Studies.

Our knowledge of vertebrate cranium evolution has relied largely on the study of gnathostomes. Recent evolutionary and developmental studies of cyclostomes have shed new light on the history of the vertebrate skull. The recent ability to obtain embryos of the hagfish, Eptatretus burgeri, has enabled new studies which have suggested an embryonic morphological pattern (the "cyclostome pattern") of craniofacial development. This pattern is shared by cyclostomes, but not by modern jawed vertebrates. Because this pattern of embryonic head development is thought to be present in some stem gnathostomes (ostracoderms), it is possible that the cyclostome pattern represents the vertebrate ancestral pattern. The study of cyclostomes may thus lead to an understanding of the most ancestral basis of craniofacial development. In this review, we summarize the development of the hagfish chondrocranium in light of the cyclostome pattern, present an updated comparison of the cyclostome chondrocranium, and discuss several aspects of the evolution and development of the vertebrate skull.

Late development of hagfish vertebral elements.

It has been demonstrated recently that hagfishes, one of two groups of extant jawless vertebrates, have cartilaginous vertebral elements. Embryological and gene expression analyses have also shown that this group of animals develops a sclerotome, the potential primordium of the axial skeleton. However, it has not been shown unequivocally that the hagfish sclerotome truly differentiates into cartilage, because access to late-stage embryos and information about the cartilaginous extracellular matrix (ECM) are lacking for these animals. Here we investigated the expression patterns of the biglycan/decorin (BGN/DCN) gene in the inshore hagfish, Eptatretus burgeri. The homologue of this gene encodes the major noncollagenous component of the cartilaginous ECM among gnathostomes. We clearly identified the expression of this gene in adult vertebral tissues and in embryonic mesenchymal cells on the ventral aspect of the notochord. Taking into account that the sclerotome in the gnathostomes expresses BGN/DCN gene during the chondrogenesis, it is highly expected the hagfish BGN/DCN-positive mesenchymal cells are derived from the sclerotomes. We propose that hagfishes and gnathostomes share conserved developmental mechanisms not only in their somite differentiation, but also in chondrogenesis of their vertebral elements.

Hagfish embryology with reference to the evolution of the neural crest.

Hagfish, which lack both jaws and vertebrae, have long been the subject of intense interest owing to their position at a crucial point in the evolutionary transition to a truly vertebrate body plan. However, unlike the comparatively well characterized vertebrate agnathan lamprey, little is known about hagfish development. The inability to analyse hagfish at early embryonic stages has frustrated attempts to resolve questions with important phylogenetic implications, including fundamental ones relating to the emergence of the neural crest. Here we report the obtainment of multiple pharyngula-stage embryos of the hagfish species Eptatretus burgeri and our preliminary analyses of their early development. We present histological evidence of putative neural crest cells, which appear as delaminated cells that migrate along pathways corresponding to neural crest cells in fish and amphibians. Molecular cloning studies further revealed the expression of several regulatory genes, including cognates of Pax6, Pax3/7, SoxEa and Sox9, suggesting that the hagfish neural crest is specified by molecular mechanisms that are general to vertebrates. We propose that the neural crest emerged as a population of de-epithelialized migratory cells in a common vertebrate ancestor, and suggest that the possibility of classical and molecular embryology in hagfish opens up new approaches to clarifying the evolutionary history of vertebrates.

Acquisition of the paired fins: a view from the sequential evolution of the lateral plate mesoderm.

The origin of paired fins has long been a focus of both paleontologists and developmental biologists. Fossil records indicate that the first pair of fin-like structures emerged in the body wall of early vertebrates. However, extant agnathan lampreys and hagfishes lack paired fins, and thus it has been difficult to determine the developmental processes underlying the ancestral acquisition of paired fins in vertebrates. Fortunately, recent advances in our knowledge of the developmental mechanisms of the lateral plate mesoderm among different taxa have provided clues for understanding the evolutionary origin of vertebrate paired appendages.

[Processes of scale formation in fish and Agnatha].

The formation of the scale cover in ancient fish and Agnatha was analyzed using paleontology data on some forms and by studying recent species according to the geochronological principle and morphological--genetic coupling approach. The histogenesis of true scale cover was transformed simultaneously but independently from dermal denticles, when the first process was accompanied by reinforcement of the bones and formation of head-body armor and dermal-like external elements of the skullcap. The scale cover is an independent organ system and is characterized by self-supporting conservative ancestral mechanisms of development.

Evo-devo studies of cyclostomes and the origin and evolution of jawed vertebrates.

Modern vertebrates consist of two sister groups: cyclostomes and gnathostomes. Cyclostomes are a monophyletic jawless group that can be further divided into hagfishes and lampreys, which show conspicuously different developmental and morphological patterns. However, during early pharyngula development, there appears to be a stage when the embryos of hagfishes and lampreys resemble each other by showing an "ancestral" craniofacial pattern; this pattern enables morphological comparison of hagfish and lamprey craniofacial development at late stages. This cyclostome developmental pattern, or more accurately, this developmental pattern of the jawless grade of vertebrates in early pharyngula was very likely shared by the gnathostome stem before the division of the nasohypophyseal placode led to the jaw and paired nostrils. The craniofacial pattern of the modern jawed vertebrates seems to have begun in fossil ostracoderms (including galeaspids), and was completed by the early placoderm lineages. The transition from jawless to jawed vertebrates was thus driven by heterotopy of development, mainly caused by separation and shift of ectodermal placodes and resultant ectomesenchymal distribution, and shifts of the epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that underlie craniofacial differentiation. Thus, the evolution of the jaw was not a simple modification of the mandibular arch, but a heterotopic shift of the developmental interactions involving not only the mandibular arch, but also the premandibular region rostral to the mandibular arch.

Developmental biology of hagfishes, with a report on newly obtained embryos of the Japanese inshore hagfish, Eptatretus burgeri.

The apparently primitive features of hagfishes are recognized as a crucial problem in the study of vertebrate evolution, although the monophyletic relationship between these animals and lampreys has been confirmed by large amounts of molecular data, including genome and EST sequences. To solve this problem requires knowledge of the developmental biology of hagfishes. We attempted to obtain embryos from the Japanese inshore hagfish ( Eptatretus burgeri ) and succeeded in preparing several nicely fixed embryos. Based on detailed histological observations and comparison of gene expression patterns with those of conventional vertebrates, we examined the developmental processes involved in some important morphological traits, including the neural crest, placode, pharyngeal arches, and others. Our data revealed that some apparently primitive morphological traits can be regarded as artifacts deriving mainly from fixation conditions. In addition, our long-term observations of live embryos revealed a slow developmental rate in this animal. In this review, we summarize recent developmental data from these hagfish embryos and discuss a plausible evolutionary scenario for vertebrate development, making comparisons with some old descriptions.

The Origin of Vertebrate Gills.

Pharyngeal gills are a fundamental feature of the vertebrate body plan [1]. However, the evolutionary history of vertebrate gills has been the subject of a long-standing controversy [2-8]. It is thought that gills evolved independently in cyclostomes (jawless vertebrates-lampreys and hagfish) and gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates-cartilaginous and bony fishes), based on their distinct embryonic origins: the gills of cyclostomes derive from endoderm [9-12], while gnathostome gills were classically thought to derive from ectoderm [10, 13]. Here, we demonstrate by cell lineage tracing that the gills of a cartilaginous fish, the little skate (Leucoraja erinacea), are in fact endodermally derived. This finding supports the homology of gills in cyclostomes and gnathostomes, and a single origin of pharyngeal gills prior to the divergence of these two ancient vertebrate lineages.

The history of scientific endeavors towards understanding hagfish embryology.

Due to their curious phylogenetic position and anatomy, hagfishes have attracted the interest of zoologists, especially in the context of vertebrate evolution. Embryological information on these animals is now also needed in the field of evolutionary developmental biology (Evo-Devo), as it is expected to provide hints about the origin of vertebrate traits, whether the hagfishes are an in-or outgroup of vertebrates. This review summarizes the importance of hagfish embryology from a phylogenetic perspective, and the history of attempts to obtain hagfish eggs and embryos. Clearly, the main difficulty associated with these animals is their deep-sea habitat. To circumvent this problem, this review also discusses the future prospects for obtaining embryological material, both from the wild and in the laboratory.

Observations on the development of the lateral line system in the Pacific hagfish (Eptatretus stouti, Myxinoidea).

We investigated the development of the lateral line system of the Pacific hagfish, Eptatretus stouti, using three-dimensional reconstructions from serial sections. Adult hagfishes possess a number of densely innervated skin grooves of unknown function, and these grooves do not contain typical lateral line receptors (i.e. neuromasts). However, three separate lateral line placodes appear to be present during development and these placodes give rise to groups of neuromast primordia. Unlike in other craniates, the neuromast primordia do not develop into neuromasts, but they apparently transform into the skin grooves of adults.

The origin of developmental mechanisms underlying vertebral elements: implications from hagfish evo-devo.

The origins of the vertebral elements and the underlying developmental mechanisms have so far remained unclear, largely due to the unusual axial skeletal morphology of hagfish, one of two extant jawless vertebrate clades. Hagfish axial supporting tissue is generally believed to consist of the notochord and cartilaginous fin rays only. However, careful investigations of whether vertebral elements are truly absent in hagfish are scarce, and it is also unclear whether the axial skeletal morphology of the hagfish is an ancestral or a derived condition. To address these questions, we re-examined the axial skeletal morphology of the Japanese inshore hagfish (Eptatretus burgeri). Based on a report published a century ago which implied the existence of vertebral elements in hagfish, we conducted anatomical and histological analyses of the hagfish axial skeletal systems and their development. Through this analysis, we demonstrate that hagfish possesses sclerotome-derived cartilaginous vertebral elements at the ventral aspect of the notochord. Based on (i) molecular phylogenetic evidence in support of the monophyly of cyclostomes (hagfish and lampreys) and jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes), and (ii) the morphology of the vertebral elements in extant gnathostomes and cyclostomes, we propose that the embryos of the common ancestor of all vertebrates would have possessed sclerotomal cells that formed the segmentally arranged vertebral elements attached to the notochord. We also conclude that the underlying developmental mechanisms are likely to have been conserved among extinct jawless vertebrates and modern gnathostomes.