Exploring the immunology of parasitism--from surface antigens to the hygiene hypothesis.

Helminth immunology is a field which has changed beyond recognition in the past 30 years, transformed not only by new technologies from cDNA cloning to flow cytometry, but also conceptually as our definition of host immune pathways has matured. The molecular revolution defined key nematode surface and secreted antigens, and identified candidate immunomodulators that are likely to underpin parasites' success in eluding immune attack. The immunological advances in defining cytokine networks, lymphocyte subsets and innate cell recognition have also made a huge impact on our understanding of helminth infections. Most recently, the ideas of regulatory immune cells, in particular the regulatory T cell, have again overturned older thinking, but also may explain immune hyporesponsiveness observed in chronic helminth diseases, as well as the link to reduced allergic reactions observed in human and animal infections. The review concludes with a forward look to where we may make future advances towards the final eradication of helminth diseases.

[Mosquito complex (Diptera, Culicidae) in a West Nile fever focus in the Volgograd Region. II. Host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes in different habitats].

Host preference of the mosquitoes collected in the urban and rural habitats of Volgograd and its suburbs was studied by the precipitation reaction test. Human and avian blood was detected in Cx. pipiens, Cx. modestus, Ae. vexans, Ae. behningi, Ae. caspius, Ae. sticticus, and females of the Anopheles maculipennis. The proportion of the mosquitoes fed on birds was similar in the urban and rural biotopes whereas that of the mosquitoes feeding on humans was significantly higher in Volgograd than in its environs. The increase in the number of human blood-fed mosquitoes in the city resulted mainly from the females collected in its multi-storied buildings.

New targets for pharmacological intervention in the glutamatergic synapse.

Excitotoxicity is thought to be a major mechanism in many human disease states such as ischemia, trauma, epilepsy and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. Briefly, synaptic overactivity leads to the excessive release of glutamate that activates postsynaptic cell membrane receptors, which upon activation open their associated ion channel pore to produce ion influx. To date, although molecular basis of glutamate toxicity remain uncertain, there is general agreement that N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of ionotropic glutamate receptors plays a key role in mediating at least some aspects of glutamate neurotoxicity. On this view, research has focused in the discovery of new compounds able to either reduce glutamate release or activation of postsynaptic NMDA receptors. Although NMDA receptor antagonists prevent excitotoxicity in cellular and animal models, these drugs have limited usefulness clinically. Side effects such as psychosis, nausea, vomiting, memory impairment, and neuronal cell death accompany complete NMDA receptor blockade, dramatizing the crucial role of the NMDA receptor in normal neuronal processes. Recently, however, well-tolerated compounds such as memantine has been shown to be able to block excitotoxic cell death in a clinically tolerated manner. Understanding the biochemical properties of the multitude of NMDA receptor subtypes offers the possibility of developing more effective and clinically useful drugs. The increasing knowledge of the structure and function of this postsynaptic NMDA complex may improve the identification of specific molecular targets whose pharmacological or genetic manipulation might lead to innovative therapies for brain disorders.

Strain-Related Differences in the Immune Response: Relevance to Human Stroke.

There are significant differences in the immune response and in the susceptibility to autoimmune diseases among rodent strains. It would thus be expected that the contribution of the immune response to cerebral ischemic injury would also differ among rodent strains. More importantly, there are significant differences between the immune responses of rodents and humans. All of these factors are likely to impact the successful translation of immunomodulatory therapies from experimental rodent models to patients with stroke.

Search of leptospires and of antibodies against leptospires in animals and human beings in farms in Pantanal and Caatinga Brazilian biomes / Pesquisa de leptospiras e de anticorpos contra leptospiras em animais e humanos de propriedades rurais nos biomas brasileiros Pantanal e Caatinga

The occurrence of Leptospira and of seroreactivity against Leptospira was investigated in animals and humans from six farms located in two Brazilian biomes that have different geoclimatic conditions: Pantanal municipalities of Miranda (MS), Itiquira (MT) and Pocone (MT) and Caatinga municipalities of Sobradinho (BA), Garanhuns (PE) and Sobral (BA). Blood and urine samples of wildlife, domestic animals and humans were collected at each property. The samples were collected from February to April 2012 in Caatinga and from July to September 2012 in Pantanal. The serological reactivity against Leptospira spp. was verified by microscopic agglutination technique (MAT) made with a collection consisting by 24 antigens of Leptospira spp. The leptospires research was carried out by urine samples crop sown in Fletcher resources and Ellinghausen McCullough Johnson Harris (EMJH). Crops with growth of leptospires were referred to the Leptospirosis Laboratory of the Institute of Pathobiology, National Institute of Agricultural Technology, Buenos Aires, Argentina and isolated Leptospira strains were genotyped with the technique of Multiple Locus Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA). The classification procedure employed the VNTR 4, 7, 9, 10, 19, 23, 31, LB4 and LB5, which discriminate strains of L. interrogans and L. borgpetersenii. In Pantanal, 17 wildlife, 65 domestic animals and two humans were examined. In Caatinga, seven wild animals were examined, along with 100 domestic animals and 26 humans. Of 84 blood samples tested in Pantanal, 47 (55.95%) were positive and, of 133 in Caatinga, 59 (44.36%) were reactant. By Fishers exact test, considering a 0.05 significance level, there was no difference between the proportions of serum reagent animals against Leptospira spp. in two biome reviews (p = 0.063). The predominant serovars in SAM reactions were: 1) Pantanal Bratislava (wildlife, dogs and humans), Grippotyphosa (horses and cattle); 2) Caatinga Copenhageni...

Foi investigada a ocorrência de leptospiras e de sororreatividade para leptospiras em animais e seres humanos de seis propriedades rurais localizadas em dois biomas brasileiros que apresentam condições geoclimáticas distintas: Pantanal municípios de Miranda (MS), Itiquira (MT) e Poconé (MT) e Caatinga municípios de Sobradinho (CE), Garanhuns (PE) e Sobral (BA). Em cada uma das propriedades, foram realizadas colheitas de sangue e de urina de animais selvagens de vida livre, animais domésticos e de seres humanos. As colheitas de materiais foram realizadas no período de fevereiro a abril de 2012 no bioma Caatinga e no período de julho a setembro de 2012 no bioma Pantanal. A reatividade sorológica contra Leptospira spp. foi verificada pela técnica de soroaglutinação microscópica (SAM) efetuada com uma coleção de antígenos constituída por 24 sorovares de Leptospira spp. A pesquisa de leptospiras foi efetuada por cultivos de amostras de urina semeadas nos meios Fletcher e de Ellinghausen McCullough Johnson Harris (EMJH). Os cultivos em que houve crescimento de leptospiras foram encaminhados ao Laboratório de Leptospirose do Instituto de Patobiologia, Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuária, Buenos Aires, Argentina e as estirpes de leptospiras isoladas foram genotipadas com o emprego da técnica de Multiple Locus Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA). O procedimento de tipificação empregou os VNTR 4, 7, 9, 10, 19, 23, 31, Lb4 e Lb5, que discriminam estirpes de L. interrogans e L. borgpetersenii. No Pantanal, foram examinados 17 animais selvagens, 65 animais domésticos e dois humanos. Na Caatinga, foram examinados sete animais selvagens, 100 animais domésticos e 26 humanos. Das 84 amostras de sangue examinadas no Pantanal, 47 (55,95%) foram reagentes e, das 133 da Caatinga, 59 (44,36%) foram reagentes. Pelo teste exato de Fisher, considerando-se um nível de significância de 0,05, não houve diferença entre as proporções de animais...

BAFfled by poxviruses?

Successful viruses engage in a dynamic interplay with their hosts, where both utilize diverse strategies to impose their supremacy. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Wiebe and Traktman describe a novel interaction between vaccinia virus and mammalian cells. A host protein called BAF can bind ectopic cytoplasmic DNA and block viral DNA replication, whereas vaccinia in turn counteracts this inhibition with a virus-encoded serine threonine kinase that inactivates BAF.

Cow's milk protein allergy. A multi-centre study: clinical and epidemiological aspects.

BACKGROUND: Due to the age when it becomes apparent and the treatment needed, cow's milk proteins (CMP) allergy requires an accurate diagnosis to avoid labelling infants falsely as allergic and subjecting them to unnecessary diets. The objective of this multi-centre study carried out at the Allergy Units of 14 Children's Hospitals was to discover the epidemiological, clinical and evolutionary characteristics of cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA). METHODS AND RESULTS: Infants suspected of CMPA who attended allergy clinics at the hospitals taking part during the study period were studied and a detailed clinical history was collected on all of them. Prick tests were done with cow's milk and its proteins and specific IgE anti-bodies were determined by means of CAP with the same allergens as the Prick test. The challenge test with cow's milk was carried out unless contraindicated by the diagnostic protocol. Two different challenge regimens were used: one of them carried out in 3 days and the other in one day. 409 infants with suspected CMPA were included and the diagnostic challenge test was performed on 286 patients (70 %) and not carried out on 123, as it was not indicated according to the protocol. IgE-mediated allergy was confirmed in 234 infants (58 %) and in 15 (4 %) non-IgE-mediated hypersensitivity was diagnosed. The two challenge regimens were equally secure. The average age when the reaction to cow's milk formula took place was 3.5 months (10 days-10 months). The symptoms appeared in the first week of introduction in 95 % of cases and appeared in 60 % with the first feeding with the formula. The most frequent clinical signs were cutaneous in 94 % of cases and the majority of cases appeared within 30 minutes of the feed. 99 % had been breast fed and 44 % had received some cow's milk supplement during the lactation period. Sensitization to egg not given in the feed was noted in 30 % and to beef in 29 %, being well tolerated in all of these. CONCLUSIONS: Carrying out an appropriate diagnostic protocol in infants attending for suspected CMPA allows allergy to be ruled out in a high percentage of cases.