[JEWISH MEDICAL STUDENTS FROM THE BRITISH MANDATE OF PALESTINE/ERETZ ISRAEL - THEIR FINAL MD EXAMINATION IN BERLIN DURING THE THIRD REICH].

INTRODUCTION: Two Jewish medical students who were forced to discontinue their study upon the raise of the Nazi regime, returned/ immigrated to Palestine and did their internship in Palestine. A third student, although faced with many procedural limitations, was able to continue most of his studies in Berlin including passing the MD examination. The first two students returned, after some years, to Berlin to sit for the Doctor examination which enabled them to gain a permanent medical license in Palestine. We describe the different backgrounds of the 3 students which enabled them to do the examination at Berlin's medical faculty during the Nazi regime. The follow up of the three, revealed glorious medical career during the British mandate and during the first years of the new state of Israel. The Dissertations were signed and supported by three leading Professors of the Berlin's Faculty. Two of them were found to have a National-Socialistic background.

Fighting Prejudice and Absorbing Refugees From Nazism: The National Committee for the Resettlement of Foreign Physicians, 1939-1945.

In the 1930s and 1940s, the medical profession reacted with hostility and erected formidable barriers to refugee physicians from Nazi-dominated Europe who sought to practice medicine in the United States. Yet, refugee physicians ultimately succeeded, with 77% of them working as doctors by 1945 and 98.6% by 1947. Although physician skills are readily transferable, and the United States had a genuine need for doctors after World War II drew 55 000 physicians into the military, refugee physicians' success can be attributed to the courageous physician leaders who lobbied on their behalf and the creation of the National Committee for the Resettlement of Foreign Physicians-an organization that helped immigrant physicians pass licensing examinations, identify locations for employment, and overcome barriers to integration into American society.

Japanese Medical Education Reforms during the Allied Forces Occupancy; Roles Played by the Public Health and Welfare Section of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers.

The health and welfare of the Japanese people were of a lower standard compared to other developed countries at the end of the World War II in 1945. Crawford F. Sams, Chief, the Public Health and Welfare Section of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers thought that medical care in a wartom country could be improved not by building new hospitals and providing more medical equipment, but through professional education and training. He founded the Council on Medical Education to reform the Japanese medical education. The Council shaped Japanese medical education by establishing the standards for medical school education and initiating internship and a national medical licensure examination. In the early 1950s, the Unitarian Service Committee Medical Mission was invited to teach to medical school professors and students American medicine. This medical mission was also a contribution of the Public Health and Welfare Section to Japanese medical education. This article explores how Public Health and Welfare Section played vital roles in transforming Japanese medical education and postgraduate training during the occupation.

The first 10 years of the American Board of Vascular Medicine.

The American Board of Vascular Medicine (ABVM) was conceived through the Society for Vascular Medicine and this year will complete 10 years of certifying physicians who practice vascular medicine and endovascular medicine. The value of certification to our physicians, patients, and field cannot be understated. This paper reviews the highlights of the test development process, quality assurance measures, and management of these high stakes examinations.

The origins of American health libertarianism.

This Article examines Americans' enduring demand for freedom of therapeutic choice as a popular constitutional movement originating in the United States' early years. In exploring extrajudicial advocacy for therapeutic choice between the American Revolution and the Civil War, this piece illustrates how multiple concepts of freedom in addition to bodily freedom bolstered the concept of a constitutional right to medical liberty. There is a deep current of belief in the United States that people have a right to choose their preferred treatments without government interference. Modern American history has given rise to movements for access to abortion, life-ending drugs, unapproved cancer treatments, and medical marijuana. Recently, cries of "Death Panels" have routinely been directed against health care reform proposals that citizens believe would limit the products and procedures covered by government health insurance. Some of the most prominent contemporary struggles for health freedom have been waged in court. But other important recent battles for freedom of therapeutic choice have taken place in other forums, from legislative hearings to Food and Drug Administration advisory committee meetings to public demonstrations. This attitude of therapeutic libertarianism is not new. Drawing mainly on primary historical sources, this Article examines arguments in favor of freedom of therapeutic choice voiced in antebellum America in the context of battles against state licensing regimes. After considering some anti-licensing arguments made before independence, it discusses the views and statements of Benjamin Rush, an influential founding father who was also the most prominent American physician of the early national period. The Article then analyzes the Jacksonian-era battle against medical licensing laws waged by the practitioners and supporters of a school of botanical medicine known as Thomsonianism. This triumphant struggle was waged in explicitly constitutional terms, even though it occurred entirely outside of the courts. The Thomsonian campaign thus offers one of the most striking examples of a successful popular constitutional movement in American history. This article shows that, at its origin, the American commitment to freedom of therapeutic choice was based on notions of not only bodily freedom, but also economic freedom, freedom of conscience, and freedom of injury. Finally, this Article considers ways in which this early history helps illuminate the nature of current struggles for freedom of therapeutic choice.

The Thomsonian movement, the regular profession, and the state in antebellum Connecticut: a case study of the repeal of early medical licensing laws.

The Thomsonian movement, founded by Samuel Thomson, was the first major challenge to the therapies and the social and economic standing of the orthodox medical profession in the United States. In the late-eighteenth or early-nineteenth century, many states chartered a state medical society with power to administer a licensing law that placed at least a nominal penalty on practicing without a license. However, in the 1830s and 1840s, under pressure by proponents of the Thomsonian system, almost all legislatures reversed themselves and removed all restrictions on medical practice. This paper reexamines the rise and fall of medical licensing using Connecticut as a case study. Antebellum legislative controversies over licensing have never been described in detail at the state level--where the drama took place--integrating the perspectives of both the medical regulars and Thomsonian botanical physicians, and state politics. Connecticut is a particularly useful case study because, except for New York, its seven-year battle from 1836 to 1842 over the medical society's charter was the most protracted in the country. How was the campaign structured? To what extent did the licensing restrictions matter? What role did the state-level Democratic party play? Thomsonianism in Connecticut, I suggest, was more professionalized and conservative than historians have often portrayed this movement. This account shows that the state's Thomsonian physicians were not anti-professional or opposed to education, but rather used the politics of the antebellum era to challenge the medical law and legitimize themselves as an alternative form of practice.

[Forerunners and development of medical licensure in Dalmatia: from individual initiatives to founding medical education in Split]. / Pretece i razvoj visokoskolske medicinske izobrazbe u dalmaciji: od individualne inicijative do osnutka medicinskog studija u splitu.

Initiating licensure and medical education in Croatia was not only schooling itself, but struggle for national identity and institution of an academic setting, which, by itself, is paramount for cultural development anywhere. Throughout history, this struggle mostly ended with administrative discouragement and opposition to all such efforts of higher medical education by contemporary authorities. The paper elaborates on the first initiatives in this direction focused on the establishment of a degree of medical education in Dalmatia. Doctor Jakov Mirkovic (1748(?)-1824) was the first to become instrumental in the area. The aims, outlines and academic basis of those first initiatives were presented in a publication of his, leading eventually to the establishment of Split School of Medicine, University of Split, finally realized in 1997.

[A Belgian medical board during World War II or the bad outcome of the law concerning the "Board of Medical Doctors " from 1938 (first part)]. / Un "Ordre des Médecins" de guerre (novembre 1941-septembre 1944) ou i'aboutissement dévoyé de la loi sur l'Ordre de 1938 (Première partie).

The medical profession regulation has always been a delicate subject to deal with. The need for one arose as early as the 17th century. Multiple attempts to create such a regulation occurred during the 19th and the 20th century, which led to the 1938 "Board of Medical Doctors" law. This law could not be applied then because of the Second World War. After the Belgian capitulation of May 28th 1940, the Germans and some members of professional or political movements wished to create a Medical Board that was totally different from the one proposed by the 1938 law. The background to this "33 Months Board" is analysed in this paper along with its functioning during the conflict. Among others this is based on the file dealing with the 1947 trial of this so called "Medical Board".

A Crisis of Trust Between U.S. Medical Education and the National Board of Medical Examiners.

This Invited Commentary is an independent opinion piece and companion to the Perspective by Carmody and Rajasekaran that appears in this issue of Academic Medicine. The National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME), a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, is a powerful gatekeeper to the medical profession in the United States. According to publicly available tax data, the NBME, which has increased its number of income-enhancing products, had revenues of $153.9 million (M) and net assets of $177.6M in 2017, earnings (revenue less expenses) of $39.7M in 2013-2017, and a highly compensated management team. Medical students are ultimately the source of nearly all the NBME's revenue, and the NBME has contributed to the growth of medical student debt. The NBME has operated as a monopoly since its agreement in the early 1990s with the Federation of State Medical Boards to cosponsor the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). Although the NBME has developed valuable products and is ostensibly governed by a capable board, the NBME has inherent financial conflicts of interest and may be benefiting from the current "Step 1 mania" undermining undergraduate medical education. Here, the author makes 4 recommendations to reestablish the trust of the U.S. medical education community in the NBME: (1) the NBME should recuse itself from current discussions and policy-making decisions related to changes in the score reporting of the USMLE Step 1 exam; (2) the NBME should disclose and be transparent about all aspects of its finances; (3) new NBME products, changes in pricing, and changes to pass thresholds should be approved by an oversight committee, independent of the NBME; and (4) the NBME (and USMLE) should not charge students or residents for retaking any of its licensing examinations.

George Deacon and the circulation of homeopathic therapies in Lima (1880-1915).

Homeopathy arrived from the United States to Peruvian soil in the last decades of the nineteenth century, broadening the repertoire of existing medical knowledge, which included an emerging medical profession, Chinese herbalists, and indigenous practitioners. This article examines the circulation and use of homeopathic therapies and medicines in Lima from the time when the American homeopath George Deacon initiated his practice, in the 1880s, until his death, in 1915. Although homeopathy was not the most widely used medical therapy in the country, it nevertheless posed a threat to professional medicine and the School of Medicine's desired monopoly of the field of medicine.

[Defending entitlement: struggles and fate of the practice of homeopathy in Colombia (1905-1950)]. / Defensa de los derechos adquiridos: luchas y albures del ejercicio de la homeopatía en Colombia (1905-1950).

This article analyzes the practice and professional status of Colombian homeopaths in the twentieth century, based on applications for licenses in the "Teguas" series in the Archivo General de la Nación. Within the historical context of the practice of medicine in Colombia, it studies homeopathic practice within the framework of the debate between licensed and permitted medicine. In that context, the field of homeopathy was subordinate to university medicine and homeopaths were a group of practitioners who were neither homogeneous nor organized, but characterized by their shared struggle to become "entitled" to practice, and their advocacy of professional status through constant litigation against official reprimands.

El artículo analiza la práctica y el estatuto profesional de los homeópatas colombianos en el siglo XX, según las solicitudes de licencia de la serie "Teguas" del Archivo General de la Nación. Desde el contexto histórico del ejercicio de la medicina en Colombia, se estudia la práctica homeopática en su inserción en el debate entre medicina diplomada y medicina permitida. Ahí aparece la homeopatía como un campo subordinado a la medicina universitaria y los homeópatas como conjunto de practicantes no homogéneo ni organizado, pero caracterizado por compartir la lucha por el "derecho adquirido" a ejercer y por la defensa de un estatuto profesional mediante la judicialización constante de la reprobación oficial.

Breaking the boundaries of professional regulation: medical licensing, foreign influence, and the consolidation of homeopathy in Mexico.

As doctors sought state support to regulate professional training and practice after Independence, Mexicans also developed different attitudes toward foreign ideas, influences, and professionals. Leveraging the allure of the foreign among Mexicans, homeopaths strategically used work, products, and organizations from abroad to establish their practices and fight changing professional policies in the country that threatened homeopathic institutions. Homeopaths inhabited the blurry and shifting boundary between professional and lay medical practice during the early Republican period, the Porfiriato, and the post-revolutionary era, and used the ambivalent feelings about medical licensing, and foreign influence in Mexican society to consolidate their position.

Medical Ethics in Radiography.

The medical field often requires radiologic technologists to make complex decisions that affect patients, employers, and colleagues. Technologists must consider practice standards when making choices, and also must act ethically to protect patients' safety and respect their autonomy. To make the most informed and ethical decisions, technologists should know the history of medical ethics, as well as be familiar with philosophical tools and ethical codes that can guide them in their daily practice.

Medical education reform efforts and failures of U.S. medical schools, 1870-1930.

The dramatic decline in the number of US medical schools in the early twentieth century has been traced to a medical education reform movement that gained momentum after the Civil War. The major parties to reform-the universities themselves, the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), state licensing boards, the American Medical Association (AMA), and Flexner-had different interests and strategies, however, and scholars have continued to debate the impact each had on the decline. To isolate the independent effects that the temporally intertwined forces for reform had on medical school failures, this study applies statistical survival analysis to an extensive and unique data set on medical schools operating in the United States between 1870 and 1930. Contrary to the views of some scholars, the results indicate that schools closed in response to critical evaluations published by the Illinois State Board of Health in the nineteenth century and the AMA and Flexner in the twentieth century. Additionally, the results indicate that schools were less likely to have failed if they adopted certain reforms implemented at leading schools or joined the AAMC, and were more likely to have failed if their state's licensing regulations mandated lengthier premedical and medical training.