Temporal dynamics of the multi-omic response to endurance exercise training.

Regular exercise promotes whole-body health and prevents disease, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood1-3. Here, the Molecular Transducers of Physical Activity Consortium4 profiled the temporal transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, lipidome, phosphoproteome, acetylproteome, ubiquitylproteome, epigenome and immunome in whole blood, plasma and 18 solid tissues in male and female Rattus norvegicus over eight weeks of endurance exercise training. The resulting data compendium encompasses 9,466 assays across 19 tissues, 25 molecular platforms and 4 training time points. Thousands of shared and tissue-specific molecular alterations were identified, with sex differences found in multiple tissues. Temporal multi-omic and multi-tissue analyses revealed expansive biological insights into the adaptive responses to endurance training, including widespread regulation of immune, metabolic, stress response and mitochondrial pathways. Many changes were relevant to human health, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, inflammatory bowel disease, cardiovascular health and tissue injury and recovery. The data and analyses presented in this study will serve as valuable resources for understanding and exploring the multi-tissue molecular effects of endurance training and are provided in a public repository ( https://motrpac-data.org/ ).

Estimates of persistent inward currents in lower limb muscles are not different between inactive, resistance-trained, and endurance-trained young males.

Persistent inward currents (PICs) increase the intrinsic excitability of α-motoneurons. The main objective of this study was to compare estimates of α-motoneuronal PICs between inactive, chronic resistance-trained, and chronic endurance-trained young individuals. We also aimed to investigate whether there is a relationship in the estimates of α-motoneuronal PIC magnitude between muscles. Estimates of PIC magnitude were obtained in three groups of young individuals: resistance-trained (n = 12), endurance-trained (n = 12), and inactive (n = 13). We recorded high-density surface electromyography (HDsEMG) signals from tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius medialis (GM), soleus (SOL), vastus medialis (VM), and vastus lateralis (VL). Then, signals were decomposed with convolutive blind source separation to identify motor unit (MU) spike trains. Participants performed triangular isometric contractions to a peak of 20% of their maximum voluntary contraction. A paired-motor-unit analysis was used to calculate ΔF, which is assumed to be proportional to PIC magnitude. Despite the substantial differences in physical training experience between groups, we found no differences in ΔF, regardless of the muscle. Significant correlations of estimates of PIC magnitude were found between muscles of the same group (VL-VM, SOL-GM). Only two correlations (out of 8) between muscles of different groups were found (TA-GM and VL-GM). Overall, our findings suggest that estimates of PIC magnitude from lower-threshold MUs at low contraction intensities in the lower limb muscles are not influenced by physical training experience in healthy young individuals. They also suggest muscle-specific and muscle group-specific regulations of the estimates of PIC magnitude.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Chronic resistance and endurance training can lead to specific adaptations in motor unit activity. The contribution of α-motoneuronal persistent inward currents (PICs) to these adaptations is currently unknown in healthy young individuals. Therefore, we studied whether estimates of α-motoneuronal PIC magnitude are higher in chronically trained endurance- and resistance-trained individuals. We also studied whether there is a relationship between the estimates of α-motoneuronal PIC magnitude of different lower limb muscles.

Endurance training and hydroxyurea have synergistic effects on muscle function and energetics in sickle cell disease mice.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is an hemoglobinopathy resulting in the production of an abnormal Hb (HbS) which can polymerize in deoxygenated conditions, leading to the sickling of red blood cells (RBC). These alterations can decrease the oxygen-carrying capacity leading to impaired function and energetics of skeletal muscle. Any strategy which could reverse the corresponding defects could be of interest. In SCD, endurance training is known to improve multiples muscle properties which restores patient's exercise capacity but present reduced effects in anemic patients. Hydroxyurea (HU) can increase fetal hemoglobin production which can reduce anemia in patients. The present study was conducted to determine whether HU can improve the effects of endurance training to improve muscle function and energetics. Twenty SCD Townes mice have been trained for 8 weeks with (n = 11) or without (n = 9) HU. SCD mice muscle function and energetics were analyzed during a standardized rest-exercise-recovery protocol, using Phosphorus-31 Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P-MRS) and transcutaneous stimulation. The combination of training and HU specifically decreased fatigue index and PCr consumption while muscle oxidative capacity was improved. These results illustrate the potential synergistic effects of endurance training and HU on muscle function and energetics in sickle cell disease.

Endurance training improves oxygen uptake/demand mismatch, metabolic flexibility and recovery in patients with sickle cell disease.

Patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) display lower slope coefficients of the oxygen uptake (V̇O2) versus work rate (W) relationship (delineating an O2 uptake/demand mismatch) and a poor metabolic flexibility. Because endurance training improves the microvascular network and increases the activity of oxidative enzymes, including one involved in lipid oxidation, endurance training might improve the slope coefficient of the V̇O2 versus W curve and the metabolic flexibility of SCD patients. Endurance training may also contribute to improve patients' post-exercise cardiopulmonary and metabolic recovery. Fifteen patients with SCD performed a submaximal incremental test on a cycle ergometer before (SIT1) and after (SIT2) 8 weeks of endurance training. Minute ventilation (V̇ E), ventilation rate, heart rate, V̇O2, carbon dioxide production (V̇CO2), respiratory exchange ratio, carbohydrate/lipid utilization and partitioning (including %Lipidox) and blood lactate concentration were measured during and after SIT1 and SIT2. At baseline, the slope coefficient of the V̇O2 versus W curve positively correlated with total hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin and percentage of HbF. After training, the slope coefficient of the V̇O2 versus W curve was significantly higher and the increase in blood lactate concentration was delayed. If patients' energy metabolism apparently relied largely on carbohydrate sources during SIT1, %Lipidox tended to increase at low exercise intensities during SIT2, supporting a training-induced improvement of metabolic flexibility in patients with SCD. Post-exercise recovery of ventilation rate, V̇ E/V̇CO2, heart rate and blood lactate concentration was faster after training. We concluded that exercise training in patients with SCD: (i) ameliorated the oxygen uptake/ demand mismatch, (ii) blunted the metabolic inflexibility, and (iii) improved post-exercise cardiopulmonary and metabolic responses.

Visceral fat mass dynamics in a 2-year randomized STrength versus ENdurance training trial in people with obesity.

AIM: To compare the effectiveness of strength versus endurance training on reducing visceral fat in individuals with obesity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For the STrength versus ENdurance (STEN) 24-month randomized clinical trial, we assigned 239 participants with abdominal obesity to either strength or endurance training (two to three times a week, 60 min/training session) in addition to standard nutritional counselling to promote a healthy diet. Changes in abdominal visceral adipose tissue (VAT) area quantified by magnetic resonance imaging after 12 months were defined as a primary endpoint. RESULTS: Participants (aged 44 years, 74% women, body mass index: 37 kg/m2, mean VAT volume: 4050 cm3) had an approximately 50% retention rate and a 30% good training programme adherence at 12 months. There was no difference between strength and endurance training in VAT volume dynamics after 12 and 24 months (p = .13). Only in the good adherence group did we find a trend for reduced VAT volume in both training regimens. Independently of the exercise programme, there was a continuous trend for moderate loss of abdominal subcutaneous AT volume, body fat mass, body mass index and improved parameters of insulin sensitivity. Although parameters of physical fitness improved upon both exercise interventions, the dynamics of resting energy expenditure, glucose and lipid metabolism parameters were not different between the intervention groups and did not significantly improve during the 2-year trial (p > .05). CONCLUSIONS: Despite heterogeneous individual training responses, strength and endurance training neither affected VAT volume nor key secondary endpoints differently.

Interaction of aerobic exercise and crocin improves memory, learning and hypocampic tau and neurotrophins gene expression in rats treated with trimethytin as a model of Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by progressive cognitive decline and a reduction in hippocampal neurotrophins, in which trimethytin (TMT) infusion causes tangles and neuronal dysfunction, creating an AD-like model in rats. Previous studies have demonstrated that crocin, which has anti-inflammatory properties, can enhance learning, memory acquisition, and cognitive behavior. This study aimed to assess the combined impact of aerobic exercise and crocin on memory, learning, and hippocampal Tau and neurotrophins gene expression in AD-like model rats. METHODS: Forty male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into five groups: (1) healthy control, (2) Alzheimer's control, (3) endurance training, (4) crocin consumption, and (5) endurance training + crocin. Alzheimer's induction was achieved in groups 2-5 through intraperitoneal injection of 8 mg/kg TMT. Rats in groups 3 and 5 engaged in treadmill running three sessions per week, 15-30 min per session, at a speed of 15-20 m/min for eight weeks, and groups 4 and 5 received daily crocin supplementation of 25 mg/kg. RESULTS: Alzheimer's induction with TMT showed significant reduction in memory, learning, NGF, BDNF, and TrkB gene expression, and increase in tau gene expression (all p < 0.05). Notably, endurance training and crocin consumption separately significantly increased memory, learning, NGF, BDNF, and TrkB gene expression while significantly decreasing tau gene expression (all p < 0.05). Importantly, combined endurance training with crocin yielded the most profound effects on memory (p = 0.001), NGF (p = 0.002), BDNF (p = 0.001), and TrkB (p = 0.003) gene expression (p < 0.005), as well as a reduction in tau gene expression (p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: These findings underscore the possible impact of endurance training, particularly when coupled with crocin, on enhancing memory, learning, and neurotrophin gene expression and reducing tau gene expression in Alzheimer's rats. These results highlight the possibility of synergistic interventions for improved therapeutic outcomes.

Endurance exercise associated with a fructooligosaccharide diet modulates gut microbiota and increases colon absorptive area.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Fructooligosaccharide (FOS) supplementation can stimulate beneficial intestinal bacteria growth, but little is known about its influence on training performance. Therefore, this study analyzed FOS and exercise effects on gut microbiota and intestinal morphology of C57Bl/6 mice. METHODS: Forty male mice were divided into four groups: standard diet-sedentary (SDS), standard diet-exercised (SDE), FOS supplemented (7.5% FOS)-sedentary (FDS), and FOS supplemented-exercised (FDE), n = 10 each group. Exercise training consisted of 60 min/day, 3 days/week, for 12 weeks. RESULTS: SDE and FDE groups had an increase in aerobic performance compared to the pretraining period and SDS and FDS groups (P < 0.01), respectively. Groups with FOS increased colonic crypts size (P < 0.05). The FDE group presented rich microbiota (α-diversity) compared to other groups. The FDE group also acquired a greater microbial abundance (ß-diversity) than other groups. The FDE group had a decrease in the Ruminococcaceae (P < 0.002) and an increase in Roseburia (P < 0.003), Enterorhabdus (P < 0.004) and Anaerotruncus (P < 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that aerobic exercise associated with FOS supplementation modulates gut microbiota and can increase colonic crypt size without improving endurance exercise performance.

Adherence and potential factors of adherence to a resistance, coordination and endurance training in older retirement home residents over 6 months.

INTRODUCTION: High exercise adherence is a key factor for effective exercise programmes. However, little is known about predictors of exercise adherence to a multimodal machine-based training in older retirement home residents. AIMS: To assess exercise adherence and potential predictors of adherence. Furthermore, to evaluate user acceptance of the multimodal training and the change in exercise self-efficacy. METHODS: In this sub-analysis of the bestform-F study, a total of 77 retirement home residents ≥65 years (mean age: 85.6 ± 6.6 years, 77.9% female) participated in a 6-month machine-based resistance, coordination and endurance training. Attendance to the training was documented for each training session. To identify potential predictors a multiple linear regression model was fitted to the data. Analyzed predictors included age, sex, body mass index (BMI), physical function, exercise self-efficacy, and physical activity history. Different domains of user acceptance (e.g. safety aspects, infrastructure) and exercise self-efficacy were assessed by a questionnaire and the exercise self-efficacy scale (ESES), respectively. RESULTS: Mean exercise adherence was 67.2% (median: 74.4%). The regression model (R2 = 0.225, p = 0.033) revealed that the 6-minute walk test (6-MWT) at baseline significantly predicted exercise adherence (ß: 0.074, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.006-0.142, p = 0.033). Different user domains were rated at least as good by 83.9%-96.9% of participants, reflecting high acceptance. No statistically significant change was found for exercise self-efficacy over 6 months (mean change: 0.47 ± 3.08 points, p = 0.156). CONCLUSION: Retirement home residents attended more than two thirds of offered training sessions and physical function at baseline was the key factor for predicting adherence. User acceptance of the training devices was highly rated. These findings indicate good potential for implementation of the exercise programme.

Endurance Training Improves Leg Proton Release and Decreases Potassium Release During High-Intensity Exercise in Normoxia and Hypobaric Hypoxia.

AIM: To assess the impact of endurance training on skeletal muscle release of H+ and K+. METHODS: Nine participants performed one-legged knee extension endurance training at moderate and high intensities (70%-85% of Wpeak), three to four sessions·week-1 for 6 weeks. Post-training, the trained and untrained (control) leg performed two-legged knee extension at low, moderate, and high intensities (40%, 62%, and 83% of Wpeak) in normoxia and hypoxia (~4000 m). The legs were exercised simultaneously to ensure identical arterial inflow concentrations of ions and metabolites, and identical power output was controlled by visual feedback. Leg blood flow was measured (ultrasound Doppler), and acid-base variables, lactate- and K+ concentrations were assessed in arterial and femoral venous blood to study K+ and H+ release. Ion transporter abundances were assessed in muscle biopsies. RESULTS: Lactate-dependent H+ release was similar in hypoxia to normoxia (p = 0.168) and was lower in the trained than the control leg at low-moderate intensities (p = 0.060-0.006) but similar during high-intensity exercise. Lactate-independent and total H+ releases were higher in hypoxia (p < 0.05) and increased more with power output in the trained leg (leg-by-power output interactions: p = 0.02). K+ release was similar at low intensity but lower in the trained leg during high-intensity exercise in normoxia (p = 0.024) and hypoxia (p = 0.007). The trained leg had higher abundances of Na+/H+ exchanger 1 (p = 0.047) and Na+/K+ pump subunit α (p = 0.036). CONCLUSION: Moderate- to high-intensity endurance training increases lactate-independent H+ release and reduces K+ release during high-intensity exercise, coinciding with increased Na+/H+ exchanger 1 and Na+/K+ pump subunit α muscle abundances.

Neuromuscular Adaptations in Endurance-Trained Male Adolescents Versus Untrained Peers: A 9-Month Longitudinal Study.

BACKGROUND: Neuromuscular function is considered as a determinant factor of endurance performance during adulthood. However, whether endurance training triggers further neuromuscular adaptations exceeding those of growth and maturation alone over the rapid adolescent growth period is yet to be determined. OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated the concurrent role of growth, maturation, and endurance training on neuromuscular function through a 9-month training period in adolescent triathletes. METHODS: Thirty-eight 13- to 15-year-old males (23 triathletes [~6 h/week endurance training] and 15 untrained [<2 h/week endurance activity]) were evaluated before and after a 9-month triathlon training season. Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) and power at V̇O2max were assessed during incremental cycling. Knee extensor maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque (MVCISO) was measured and the voluntary activation level (VAL) was determined using the twitch interpolation technique. Knee extensor doublet peak torque (T100Hz) and normalized vastus lateralis (VL) electromyographic activity (EMG/M-wave) were also determined. VL and rectus femoris (RF) muscle architecture was assessed using ultrasonography. RESULTS: Absolute V̇O2max increased similarly in both groups but power at V̇O2max only significantly increased in triathletes (+13.8%). MVCISO (+14.4%), VL (+4.4%), and RF (+15.8%) muscle thicknesses and RF pennation angle (+22.1%) increased over the 9-month period in both groups similarly (p < 0.01), although no changes were observed in T100Hz, VAL, or VL EMG/M-wave. No changes were detected in any neuromuscular variables, except for coactivation. CONCLUSION: Endurance training did not induce detectible, additional neuromuscular adaptations. However, the training-specific cycling power improvement in triathletes may reflect continued skill enhancement over the training period.

No additive effect of creatine, caffeine, and sodium bicarbonate on intense exercise performance in endurance-trained individuals.

BACKGROUND: Athletes commonly use creatine, caffeine, and sodium bicarbonate for performance enhancement. While their isolated effects are well-described, less is known about their potential additive effects. METHODS: Following a baseline trial, we randomized 12 endurance-trained males (age: 25 ± 5 years, VO2max: 56.7 ± 4.6 mL kg-1 min-1; mean ± SD) and 11 females (age: 25 ± 3 years, VO2max: 50.2 ± 3.4 mL kg-1 min-1) to 5 days of creatine monohydrate (0.3 g kg-1 per day) or placebo loading, followed by a daily maintenance dose (0.04 g kg-1) throughout the study. After the loading period, subjects completed four trials in randomized order where they ingested caffeine (3 mg kg-1), sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g kg-1), placebo, or both caffeine and sodium bicarbonate before a maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), 15-s sprint, and 6-min time trial. RESULTS: Compared to placebo, mean power output during 15-s sprint was higher following loading with creatine than placebo (+34 W, 95% CI: 10 to 58, p = 0.008), but with no additional effect of caffeine (+10 W, 95% CI: -7 to 24, p = 0.156) or sodium bicarbonate (+5 W, 95% CI: -4 to 13, p = 0.397). Mean power output during 6-min time trial was higher with caffeine (+12 W, 95% CI: 5 to 18, p = 0.001) and caffeine + sodium bicarbonate (+8 W, 95% CI: 0 to 15, p = 0.038), whereas sodium bicarbonate (-1 W, 95% CI: -7 to 6, p = 0.851) and creatine (-6 W, 95% CI: -15 to 4, p = 0.250) had no effects. CONCLUSION: While creatine and caffeine can enhance sprint- and time trial performance, respectively, these effects do not seem additive. Therefore, supplementing with either creatine or caffeine appears sufficient to enhance sprint or short intense exercise performance.

Effects and long-term outcomes of endurance versus resistance training as an adjunct to standard medication in patients with stable COPD: a multicenter randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Comparisons between endurance training (ET) and resistance training (RT) have produced equivocal findings in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients. The purpose of our study is to investigate the effectiveness and long-term outcomes of adding ET and RT to conventional medical treatment in patients with COPD. A secondary objective is to investigate the clinical improvements resulting from exercise training in patients with different disease severities. METHODS: The study was a multicenter, prospective trial in people with stable COPD. The cohort was randomized to three groups: individualized medical treatment group (MT), MT + endurance training group (MT + ET) and MT + resistance training group (MT + RT). Exercise was performed 3 times weekly over a 12-week period. The endpoints of exercise capacity, health-related quality of life, COPD symptoms, lung function, and anxiety and depression questionnaires were re-evaluated at baseline, at the completion of the intervention and at 6 and 12-month follow-up. According to the COPD assessment tool offered by GOLD guidelines, patients were stratified into GOLD A and B groups and GOLD C and D groups for further subgroup analysis. RESULTS: The intention-to-treat (ITT) population included 366 patients, 328 of them completed the study protocol over 12 months (the PP-population). There were no significant differences in the primary outcome, quality of life, between patients who underwent medical treatment (MT) alone, MT + endurance training (MT + ET), or MT + resistance training (MT + RT) at the completion of the intervention, 6-, or 12-month follow-up. Additionally, no significant differences were observed between MT, MT + RT, or MT + ET groups concerning the primary outcome, exercise capacity (3MWD), after initial 3 months of intervention. However, a small statistically significant difference was noted in favor of MT + ET compared to MT + RT at 12 months (ITT: Δ3MWD in ET vs RT = 5.53 m, 95% confidence interval: 0.87 to 13.84 m, P = 0.03) (PP: Δ3MWD in ET vs RT = 7.67 m, 95% confidence interval: 0.93 to 16.27 m, P = 0.04). For patients in the GOLD C and D groups, improvement in quality of life following ET or RT was significantly superior to medical intervention alone. Furthermore, upon completion of the exercise regimen, RT exhibited a greater improvement in anxiety compared to ET in these patients (ITT: ΔHAD-A at 3-month: RT = -1.63 ± 0.31 vs ET = -0.61 ± 0.33, p < 0.01) (PP: ΔHAD-A at 3-month: RT = -1.80 ± 0.36 vs ET = -0.75 ± 0.37, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Our study presents evidence of the beneficial effects of ET and RT in combination with standard medical treatment, as well as the long-term effects over time after the intervention. While the statistically significant effect favoring ET over RT in terms of exercise capacity was observed, it should be interpreted cautiously. Patients in severe stages of COPD may derive greater benefits from either ET or RT and should be encouraged accordingly. These findings have implications for exercise prescription in patients with COPD. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ChiCTR-INR-16009892 (17, Nov, 2016).

Prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition.

PURPOSE: To quantify the effects of prolonged cycling on the rate of ventilation ([Formula: see text]), frequency of respiration (FR), and tidal volume (VT) associated with the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. METHODS: Fourteen endurance-trained cyclists and triathletes (one female) completed an assessment of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, determined as the first ventilatory threshold (VT1), before (PRE) and after (POST) two hours of moderate-intensity cycling. The power output, [Formula: see text], FR, and VT associated with VT1 were determined PRE and POST. RESULTS: As previously reported, power output at VT1 significantly decreased by ~ 10% from PRE to POST. The [Formula: see text] associated with VT1 was unchanged from PRE to POST (72 ± 12 vs. 69 ± 13 L.min-1, ∆ - 3 ± 5 L.min-1, ∆ - 4 ± 8%, P = 0.075), and relatively consistent (within-subject coefficient of variation, 5.4% [3.7, 8.0%]). The [Formula: see text] associated with VT1 was produced with increased FR (27.6 ± 5.8 vs. 31.9 ± 6.5 breaths.min-1, ∆ 4.3 ± 3.1 breaths.min-1, ∆ 16 ± 11%, P = 0.0002) and decreased VT (2.62 ± 0.43 vs. 2.19 ± 0.36 L.breath-1, ∆ - 0.44 ± 0.22 L.breath-1, ∆ - 16 ± 7%, P = 0.0002) in POST. CONCLUSION: These data suggest prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, but [Formula: see text] remains stable. Real-time monitoring of [Formula: see text] may be a useful means of assessing proximity to the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise and is worthy of further research.

Combined Endurance and Strength or Only Endurance Training? Effects of Training Mode on Neuromuscular Characteristics and Functional Abilities in Obese Adolescent Girls Enrolled in a Weight-Reduction Program.

The aim of the present study was to examine whether combining strength and endurance training would promote better improvements in neuromuscular characteristics and functional abilities than endurance training alone in obese adolescent girls enrolled in a weight-reduction program. Twenty-four obese adolescent girls (12-15 years) volunteered to participate in a 9-month training program. Participants were allocated into two groups following either (i) combined training (endurance + strength; E+ST) or (ii) endurance training (ET) program. Absolute and specific maximal torque, muscle size, and maximal voluntary activation level (VA) of the knee extensor (KE) and plantar flexor (PF) muscles were assessed. Moreover, functional abilities such as balance and fatigability during a maximal isometric intermittent contraction test of the KE muscles were measured before and after the intervention. The force of the adductor pollicis (AP) muscles was used as a control to account for any effect of growth or mechanical unloading on neuromuscular properties and muscle size. While absolute and specific torque of the KE (+14.7 ± 12.1% and +14.4 ± 15.5%; p < 0.05) and PF (+19.2 ± 16.7% and +18.3 ± 17.5%; p < 0.001) muscles increased in the E+ST group, PF torque decreased, and KE torque did not change in the ET group (-22.6 ± 10.5% and -15.0 ± 17.2%; p < 0.001). Moreover, the VA of the KE muscles increased for the E+ST (+6.1 ± 5.6%; p < 0.01) group and decreased for the ET group (-5.4 ± 5.4%; p < 0.05). In contrast, VA remained similar in the PF muscles for both groups. The number of repetitions during the fatigability test increased in the ET group (38.4 ± 22.3 vs. 84.1 ± 33.3; p = 0.032) and was unchanged in the E+ST group (50.8 ± 14.1 vs. 54.2 ± 37.8), but it was associated with a higher force level. Moreover, balance improved in the E+ST group, but not in the ET group. To conclude, physical training combining strength and endurance training promoted larger improvement in neuromuscular characteristics and functional abilities than endurance training alone in obese adolescent girls. Greater neuromuscular adaptations resulting from the E+ST training may be beneficial for preserving or even increasing functional abilities and possibly induce greater engagement in the active lifestyle of obese adolescents. However, the endurance component seems necessary in training programs to reduce fatigability during daily living activities.

Immunometabolic and Vascular Health Responses among High Endurance Trained Subjects.

In this study, we aimed to examine the impact of high endurance training on vascular health parameters and immune-endocrine responses against modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles. This observational, cross-sectional study included high endurance-trained and healthy non-trained subjects. Vascular ultrasound was used to assess vascular health parameters based on carotid intima-media thickness and endothelial function (flow-mediated dilation). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to measure interleukin (IL)-8 and IL-10, autoantibody isotypes anti-oxidized LDL (oxLDL) and anti-apolipoprotein B (ApoB-D) peptide. Plasma levels of the corticosterone and 17 α-hydroxyprogesterone hormones were analyzed by mass spectrometry. This study enrolled 96 subjects, of whom 44 were high endurance trained and 52 were healthy non-trained individuals. Smaller carotid intima-media thickness values were observed in the high-endurance trained than in the healthy non-trained males, while no differences were observed between female groups. Flow-mediated dilation measurements did not differ by training or sex. The humoral immune responses to IgG anti-oxLDL and IgM anti-ApoB-D autoantibodies showed an isotype imbalance between the high-endurance trained and the non-trained groups. Immunoendocrine parameters showed inverse correlations between 17 α-hydroxyprogesterone concentrations and carotid intima-media thickness measurements. Direct correlations were found between IL-10 concentrations and flow-mediated dilation measurements. Chronic high-endurance exercise modulates immune-endocrine and vascular health parameters, in a sex-dependent manner.

Implications of Heat Stress-induced Metabolic Alterations for Endurance Training.

Inducing a heat-acclimated phenotype via repeated heat stress improves exercise capacity and reduces athletes̓ risk of hyperthermia and heat illness. Given the increased number of international sporting events hosted in countries with warmer climates, heat acclimation strategies are increasingly popular among endurance athletes to optimize performance in hot environments. At the tissue level, completing endurance exercise under heat stress may augment endurance training adaptation, including mitochondrial and cardiovascular remodeling due to increased perturbations to cellular homeostasis as a consequence of metabolic and cardiovascular load, and this may improve endurance training adaptation and subsequent performance. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the metabolic impact of heat stress during endurance exercise, including proposed underlying mechanisms of altered substrate utilization. Against this metabolic backdrop, the current literature highlighting the role of heat stress in augmenting training adaptation and subsequent endurance performance will be presented with practical implications and opportunities for future research.

The effect of craniocervical flexors endurance training on suprahyoid muscle activation in healthy adults: A randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Cervical posture affects swallowing function through contractile and non-contractile structures. Craniocervical flexor endurance training (CCFET), which focuses on the activation of deep cervical muscles, is used to ensure cervical posture stability. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of CCFET on the suprahyoid muscles (SH), which play an important role in swallowing function. METHODS: Eighty healthy individuals (52 female and 28 male, mean age 21.77 ± 1.81 years) were recruited and randomly assigned to groups that underwent either deep cervical flexor (DCF) training with a pressure biofeedback unit (CCFET group, n = 41) or no intervention (control group, n = 39). The intervention was applied for 4 weeks (five sessions per week). Static endurance and activation of DCF muscles (Craniocervical Flexion Test, CCFT), tragus-wall distance (TWD) for forward head posture and surface electromyographic (sEMG) activation of suprahyoid muscles were evaluated. RESULTS: The endurance and activation of the DCF muscles were significantly increased in the CCFET group (p = <.001). In the CCFET group, TWD significantly lower than the control group (p = <.001) Peak SH amplitude and mean SH amplitude were lower in the CCFET group compared to the control group (p = .013, p = .003). CONCLUSION: The study shows that 4 weeks of CCFET reduced SH muscle activation, allowing the same work to be done with fewer motor units. CCFET can be included in rehabilitation programs as an additional method that has an effect on the muscles involved in swallowing by providing cervical motor control.

The Acute, Short-, and Long-Term Effects of Endurance Exercise on Skeletal Muscle Transcriptome Profiles.

A better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that are involved in skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise is fundamentally important to take full advantage of the enormous benefits that exercise training offers in disease prevention and therapy. The aim of this study was to elucidate the transcriptional signatures that distinguish the endurance-trained and untrained muscles in young adult males (24 ± 3.5 years). We characterized baseline differences as well as acute exercise-induced transcriptome responses in vastus lateralis biopsy specimens of endurance-trained athletes (ET; n = 8; VO2max, 67.2 ± 8.9 mL/min/kg) and sedentary healthy volunteers (SED; n = 8; VO2max, 40.3 ± 7.6 mL/min/kg) using microarray technology. A second cohort of SED volunteers (SED-T; n = 10) followed an 8-week endurance training program to assess expression changes of selected marker genes in the course of skeletal muscle adaptation. We deciphered differential baseline signatures that reflected major differences in the oxidative and metabolic capacity of the endurance-trained and untrained muscles. SED-T individuals in the training group displayed an up-regulation of nodal regulators of oxidative adaptation after 3 weeks of training and a significant shift toward the ET signature after 8 weeks. Transcriptome changes provoked by 1 h of intense cycling exercise only poorly overlapped with the genes that constituted the differential baseline signature of ETs and SEDs. Overall, acute exercise-induced transcriptional responses were connected to pathways of contractile, oxidative, and inflammatory stress and revealed a complex and highly regulated framework of interwoven signaling cascades to cope with exercise-provoked homeostatic challenges. While temporal transcriptional programs that were activated in SEDs and ETs were quite similar, the quantitative divergence in the acute response transcriptomes implicated divergent kinetics of gene induction and repression following an acute bout of exercise. Together, our results provide an extensive examination of the transcriptional framework that underlies skeletal muscle plasticity.

Impact of Resistance and Endurance Training on Ghrelin and Plasma Leptin Levels in Overweight and Obese Subjects.

Exercise training is a valuable tool for improving body weight and composition in overweight or obese adults, which leads to a negative energy balance. It is relevant to consider whether exercise can help people lose weight or prevent weight gain because any energy expended in exercise increases the severity of hunger and promotes food consumption. Over the past decade, the identification of the circulating peptide ghrelin, which alerts the brain to the body's nutritional state, has significantly expanded our understanding of this homeostatic mechanism that controls appetite and body weight. To shed more light on this issue, we decided to investigate the effects of resistance and endurance training on plasma ghrelin and leptin levels. In addition, we sought to understand the mechanisms by which acute and chronic exercise can regulate hunger. This review analyzes studies published in the last fifteen years that focused on changes suffered by ghrelin, leptin, or both after physical exercise in overweight or obese individuals. Most studies have shown a decrease in leptin levels and an increase in ghrelin levels in these cases. Exercise regimens that support weight maintenance need further investigation.

The Improvement in Exercise Performance during Reduced Muscle Mass Exercise is Associated with an Increase in Femoral Blood Flow in Older and Younger Endurance-Trained Athletes.

This study investigated whether the improved performance observed with maximal self-paced single-leg (SL), compared with double-leg (DL) cycling, is associated with enhanced femoral blood flow and/or altered tissue oxygenation. The hyperaemic response to exercise was assessed in younger and older athletes. Power output was measured in 12 older (65 ± 4 y) and 12 younger (35 ± 5 y) endurance-trained individuals performing 2 x 3 min maximal self-paced exercise using SL and DL cycling. Blood flow (BF) in the femoral artery was assessed using Doppler ultrasound and muscle oxygenation was measured using near-infrared spectroscopy on the vastus lateralis. SL cycling elicited a greater power output (295 ± 83 vs 265 ± 70 W, P < 0.001) and peak femoral BF (1749.1 ± 533.3 vs 1329.7 ± 391.7 ml/min, P < 0.001) compared with DL cycling. Older individuals had a lower peak BF in response to exercise (1355.4 ± 385.8 vs 1765.2 ± 559.6 ml/min, P = 0.019) compared with younger individuals. Peak BF in response to exercise was correlated with power output during SL (r = 0.655, P = 0.002) and DL (r = 0.666, P = 0.001) cycling. The greater exercise performance during SL compared with DL cycling may be partly explained by a greater hyperaemic response when reducing active muscle mass. Despite regular endurance training, older athletes had a lower femoral BF in response to maximal self-paced exercise compared with younger athletes.