Quantification of Element Fluxes in Wastewaters: A Nationwide Survey in Switzerland.

The number and quantities of trace elements used in industry, (high-tech) consumer products, and medicine are rapidly increasing, but the resulting emissions and waste streams are largely unknown. We assessed the concentrations of 69 elements in digested sewage sludge and effluent samples from 64 municipal wastewater treatment plants as well as in major rivers in Switzerland. This data set, representative of an entire industrialized country, presents a reference point for current element concentrations, average per-capita fluxes, loads discharged to surface waters, and economic waste-stream values. The spatial distribution of many individual elements could be attributed either to predominant geogenic or to anthropogenic inputs. Per-capita element fluxes ranged from <10 µg day-1 (e.g., Au, In, and Lu) to >1 mg day-1 (e.g., Zn, Sc, Y, Nb, and Gd) and >1 g day-1 (e.g., for P, Fe, and S). Effluent loads of some elements contributed significantly to riverine budgets (e.g., 24% for Zn, 50% for P, and 83% for Gd), indicating large anthropogenic inputs via the wastewater stream. At various locations, precious metal concentrations in sludge were similar to those in profitable mining ores, with total flux values of up to 6.8 USD per capita per year or 15 USD per metric ton of dry sludge.