Non-canonical (non-SMAD2/3) TGF-ß signaling in fibrosis: Mechanisms and targets.

ABSTRACT

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß uses several intracellular signaling pathways besides canonical ALK5-Smad2/3 signaling to regulate a diverse array of cellular functions. Several of these so-called non-canonical (non-Smad2/3) pathways have been implicated in the pathogenesis of fibrosis and may therefore represent targets for therapeutic intervention. This review summarizes our current knowledge on the mechanisms of non-canonical TGF-ß signaling in fibrosis, the potential molecular targets and the use of agonists/antagonists for therapeutic intervention.