Mammalian Ddi2 is a shuttling factor containing a retroviral protease domain that influences binding of ubiquitylated proteins and proteasomal degradation.

ABSTRACT

Although several proteasome subunits have been shown to bind ubiquitin (Ub) chains, many ubiquitylated substrates also associate with 26S proteasomes via "shuttling factors." Unlike the well-studied yeast shuttling factors Rad23 and Dsk2, vertebrate homologs Ddi2 and Ddi1 lack a Ub-associated domain; therefore, it is unclear how they bind Ub. Here, we show that deletion of Ddi2 leads to the accumulation of Ub conjugates with K11/K48 branched chains. We found using affinity copurifications that Ddi2 binds Ub conjugates through its Ub-like domain, which is also required for Ddi2 binding to proteasomes. Furthermore, in cell extracts, adding Ub conjugates increased the amount of Ddi2 associated with proteasomes, and adding Ddi2 increased the binding of Ub conjugates to purified proteasomes. In addition, Ddi2 also contains a retroviral protease domain with undefined cellular roles. We show that blocking the endoprotease activity of Ddi2 either genetically or with the HIV protease inhibitor nelfinavir increased its binding to Ub conjugates but decreased its binding to proteasomes and reduced subsequent protein degradation by proteasomes leading to further accumulation of Ub conjugates. Finally, nelfinavir treatment required Ddi2 to induce the unfolded protein response. Thus, Ddi2 appears to function as a shuttling factor in endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation and delivers K11/K48-ubiquitylated proteins to the proteasome. We conclude that the protease activity of Ddi2 influences this shuttling factor activity, promotes protein turnover, and helps prevent endoplasmic reticulum stress, which may explain nelfinavir's ability to enhance cell killing by proteasome inhibitors.