Directional thermal channeling: A phenomenon triggered by tight packing of heat sources.

Understanding nanoscale thermal transport is critical for nano-engineered devices such as quantum sensors, thermoelectrics, and nanoelectronics. However, despite overwhelming experimental evidence for nondiffusive heat dissipation from nanoscale heat sources, the underlying mechanisms are still not understood. In this work, we show that for nanoscale heat source spacings that are below the mean free path of the dominant phonons in a substrate, close packing of the heat sources increases in-plane scattering and enhances cross-plane thermal conduction. This leads to directional channeling of thermal transport-a novel phenomenon. By using advanced atomic-level simulations to accurately access the lattice temperature and the phonon scattering and transport properties, we finally explain the counterintuitive experimental observations of enhanced cooling for close-packed heat sources. This represents a distinct fundamental behavior in materials science with far-reaching implications for electronics and future quantum devices.

Universal Behavior of Highly Confined Heat Flow in Semiconductor Nanosystems: From Nanomeshes to Metalattices.

Nanostructuring on length scales corresponding to phonon mean free paths provides control over heat flow in semiconductors and makes it possible to engineer their thermal properties. However, the influence of boundaries limits the validity of bulk models, while first-principles calculations are too computationally expensive to model real devices. Here we use extreme ultraviolet beams to study phonon transport dynamics in a 3D nanostructured silicon metalattice with deep nanoscale feature size and observe dramatically reduced thermal conductivity relative to bulk. To explain this behavior, we develop a predictive theory wherein thermal conduction separates into a geometric permeability component and an intrinsic viscous contribution, arising from a new and universal effect of nanoscale confinement on phonon flow. Using experiments and atomistic simulations, we show that our theory applies to a general set of highly confined silicon nanosystems, from metalattices, nanomeshes, porous nanowires, to nanowire networks, of great interest for next-generation energy-efficient devices.

Nondestructive Measurements of the Mechanical and Structural Properties of Nanostructured Metalattices.

Metalattices are artificial 3D solids, periodic on sub-100 nm length scales, that enable the functional properties of materials to be tuned. However, because of their complex structure, predicting and characterizing their properties is challenging. Here we demonstrate the first nondestructive measurements of the mechanical and structural properties of metalattices with feature sizes down to 14 nm. By monitoring the time-dependent diffraction of short wavelength light from laser-excited acoustic waves in the metalattices, we extract their acoustic dispersion, Young's modulus, filling fraction, and thicknesses. Our measurements are in excellent agreement with macroscopic predictions and potentially destructive techniques such as nanoindentation and scanning electron microscopy, with increased accuracy over larger areas. This is interesting because the transport properties of these metalattices do not obey bulk predictions. Finally, this approach is the only way to validate the filling fraction of metalattices over macroscopic areas. These combined capabilities can enable accurate synthesis of nanoenhanced materials.

GaAs/GaP Superlattice Nanowires for Tailoring Phononic Properties at the Nanoscale: Implications for Thermal Engineering.

The possibility to tune the functional properties of nanomaterials is key to their technological applications. Superlattices, i.e., periodic repetitions of two or more materials in one or more dimensions, are being explored for their potential as materials with tailor-made properties. Meanwhile, nanowires offer a myriad of possibilities to engineer systems at the nanoscale, as well as to combine materials that cannot be put together in conventional heterostructures due to the lattice mismatch. In this work, we investigate GaAs/GaP superlattices embedded in GaP nanowires and demonstrate the tunability of their phononic and optoelectronic properties by inelastic light scattering experiments corroborated by ab initio calculations. We observe clear modifications in the dispersion relation for both acoustic and optical phonons in the superlattices nanowires. We find that by controlling the superlattice periodicity, we can achieve tunability of the phonon frequencies. We also performed wavelength-dependent Raman microscopy on GaAs/GaP superlattice nanowires, and our results indicate a reduction in the electronic bandgap in the superlattice compared to the bulk counterpart. All of our experimental results are rationalized with the help of ab initio density functional perturbation theory (DFPT) calculations. This work sheds fresh insights into how material engineering at the nanoscale can tailor phonon dispersion and open pathways for thermal engineering.

Structural and Elastic Properties of Empty-Pore Metalattices Extracted via Nondestructive Coherent Extreme UV Scatterometry and Electron Tomography.

Semiconductor metalattices consisting of a linked network of three-dimensional nanostructures with periodicities on a length scale <100 nm can enable tailored functional properties due to their complex nanostructuring. For example, by controlling both the porosity and pore size, thermal transport in these phononic metalattices can be tuned, making them promising candidates for efficient thermoelectrics or thermal rectifiers. Thus, the ability to characterize the porosity, and other physical properties, of metalattices is critical but challenging, due to their nanoscale structure and thickness. To date, only metalattices with high porosities, close to the close-packing fraction of hard spheres, have been studied experimentally. Here, we characterize the porosity, thickness, and elastic properties of a low-porosity, empty-pore silicon metalattice film (∼500 nm thickness) with periodic spherical pores (∼tens of nanometers), for the first time. We use laser-driven nanoscale surface acoustic waves probed by extreme ultraviolet scatterometry to nondestructively measure the acoustic dispersion in these thin silicon metalattice layers. By comparing the data to finite element models of the metalattice sample, we can extract Young's modulus and porosity. Moreover, by controlling the acoustic wave penetration depth, we can also determine the metalattice layer thickness and verify the substrate properties. Additionally, we utilize electron tomography images of the metalattice to verify the geometry and validate the porosity extracted from scatterometry. These advanced characterization techniques are critical for informed and iterative fabrication of energy-efficient devices based on nanostructured metamaterials.

A General and Predictive Understanding of Thermal Transport from 1D- and 2D-Confined Nanostructures: Theory and Experiment.

Heat management is crucial in the design of nanoscale devices as the operating temperature determines their efficiency and lifetime. Past experimental and theoretical works exploring nanoscale heat transport in semiconductors addressed known deviations from Fourier's law modeling by including effective parameters, such as a size-dependent thermal conductivity. However, recent experiments have qualitatively shown behavior that cannot be modeled in this way. Here, we combine advanced experiment and theory to show that the cooling of 1D- and 2D-confined nanoscale hot spots on silicon can be described using a general hydrodynamic heat transport model, contrary to previous understanding of heat flow in bulk silicon. We use a comprehensive set of extreme ultraviolet scatterometry measurements of nondiffusive transport from transiently heated nanolines and nanodots to validate and generalize our ab initio model, that does not need any geometry-dependent fitting parameters. This allows us to uncover the existence of two distinct time scales and heat transport mechanisms: an interface resistance regime that dominates on short time scales and a hydrodynamic-like phonon transport regime that dominates on longer time scales. Moreover, our model can predict the full thermomechanical response on nanometer length scales and picosecond time scales for arbitrary geometries, providing an advanced practical tool for thermal management of nanoscale technologies. Furthermore, we derive analytical expressions for the transport time scales, valid for a subset of geometries, supplying a route for optimizing heat dissipation.

Full-field imaging of thermal and acoustic dynamics in an individual nanostructure using tabletop high harmonic beams.

Imaging charge, spin, and energy flow in materials is a current grand challenge that is relevant to a host of nanoenhanced systems, including thermoelectric, photovoltaic, electronic, and spin devices. Ultrafast coherent x-ray sources enable functional imaging on nanometer length and femtosecond timescales particularly when combined with advances in coherent imaging techniques. Here, we combine ptychographic coherent diffractive imaging with an extreme ultraviolet high harmonic light source to directly visualize the complex thermal and acoustic response of an individual nanoscale antenna after impulsive heating by a femtosecond laser. We directly image the deformations induced in both the nickel tapered nanoantenna and the silicon substrate and see the lowest-order generalized Lamb wave that is partially confined to a uniform nanoantenna. The resolution achieved-sub-100 nm transverse and 0.5-Å axial spatial resolution, combined with ≈10-fs temporal resolution-represents a significant advance in full-field dynamic imaging capabilities. The tapered nanoantenna is sufficiently complex that a full simulation of the dynamic response would require enormous computational power. We therefore use our data to benchmark approximate models and achieve excellent agreement between theory and experiment. In the future, this work will enable three-dimensional functional imaging of opaque materials and nanostructures that are sufficiently complex that their functional properties cannot be predicted.

Tailoring thermal conductivity via three-dimensional porous alumina.

Three-dimensional anodic alumina templates (3D-AAO) are an astonishing framework with open highly ordered three-dimensional skeleton structures. Since these templates are architecturally different from conventional solids or porous templates, they teem with opportunities for engineering thermal properties. By establishing the mechanisms of heat transfer in these frameworks, we aim to create materials with tailored thermal properties. The effective thermal conductivity of an empty 3D-AAO membrane was measured. As the effective medium theory was not valid to extract the skeletal thermal conductivity of 3D-AAO, a simple 3D thermal conduction model was developed, based on a mixed series and parallel thermal resistor circuit, giving a skeletal thermal conductivity value of approximately 1.25 W·m-1·K-1, which matches the value of the ordinary AAO membranes prepared from the same acid solution. The effect of different filler materials as well as the variation of the number of transversal nanochannels and the length of the 3D-AAO membrane in the effective thermal conductivity of the composite was studied. Finally, the thermal conductivity of two 3D-AAO membranes filled with cobalt and bismuth telluride was also measured, which was in good agreement with the thermal model predictions. Therefore, this work proved this structure as a powerful approach to tailor thermal properties.

Anisotropic Effects on the Thermoelectric Properties of Highly Oriented Electrodeposited Bi2Te3 Films.

Highly oriented [1 1 0] Bi2Te3 films were obtained by pulsed electrodeposition. The structure, composition, and morphology of these films were characterized. The thermoelectric figure of merit (zT), both parallel and perpendicular to the substrate surface, were determined by measuring the Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity in each direction. At 300 K, the in-plane and out-of-plane figure of merits of these Bi2Te3 films were (5.6 ± 1.2)·10(-2) and (10.4 ± 2.6)·10(-2), respectively.

Thermal conductivity measurements of high and low thermal conductivity films using a scanning hot probe method in the 3ω mode and novel calibration strategies.

This work discusses measurement of thermal conductivity (k) of films using a scanning hot probe method in the 3ω mode and investigates the calibration of thermal contact parameters, specifically the thermal contact resistance (R(th)C) and thermal exchange radius (b) using reference samples with different thermal conductivities. R(th)C and b were found to have constant values (with b = 2.8 ± 0.3 µm and R(th)C = 44,927 ± 7820 K W(-1)) for samples with thermal conductivity values ranging from 0.36 W K(-1) m(-1) to 1.1 W K(-1) m(-1). An independent strategy for the calibration of contact parameters was developed and validated for samples in this range of thermal conductivity, using a reference sample with a previously measured Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity. The results were found to agree with the calibration performed using multiple samples of known thermal conductivity between 0.36 and 1.1 W K(-1) m(-1). However, for samples in the range between 16.2 W K(-1) m(-1) and 53.7 W K(-1) m(-1), calibration experiments showed the contact parameters to have considerably different values: R(th)C = 40,191 ± 1532 K W(-1) and b = 428 ± 24 nm. Finally, this work demonstrates that using these calibration procedures, measurements of both highly conductive and thermally insulating films on substrates can be performed, as the measured values obtained were within 1-20% (for low k) and 5-31% (for high k) of independent measurements and/or literature reports. Thermal conductivity results are presented for a SiGe film on a glass substrate, Te film on a glass substrate, polymer films (doped with Fe nano-particles and undoped) on a glass substrate, and Au film on a Si substrate.

Sulfite oxidase biosensors based on tetrathiafulvalene modified screen-printed carbon electrodes for sulfite determination in wine.

Screen-printed carbon electrodes have been modified with tetrathiafulvalene and sulfite oxidase enzyme for the sensitive and selective detection of sulfite. Amperometric experimental conditions were optimized taking into account the importance of quantifying sulfite in wine samples and the inherent complexity of these samples, particularly red wine. The biosensor responds to sulfite giving a cathodic current (at +200 mV vs screen-printed Ag/AgCl electrode and pH 6) in a wide concentration range, with a capability of detection of 6 µM (α=ß=0.05) at 60°C. The method has been applied to the determination of sulfite in white and red samples, with averages recoveries of 101.5% to 101.8%, respectively.

Chagas cardiomyopathy and serologic testing in a small rural hospital in Chiapas, Mexico.

OBJECTIVES: To conduct a study in a small rural hospital located in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, to: (1) examine the prevalence of chagasic cardiomyopathy among patients with the diagnosis of congestive heart failure and (2) assess the prevalence of positive serologic results in blood donors in the hospital, in an attempt to ascertain whether Chagas' disease remains an important cause of heart failure at least in some areas of Mexico. METHODS: The study of patients with cardiomyopathy was conducted by retrospective chart review of patients with the diagnosis of congestive heart failure treated at the hospital during the years 2000-2002. With the blood donors, the results of their serologic screening were reviewed for a six-month period beginning in April 2002. Serologic testing was done in both groups with either indirect hemagglutination (IHA) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or with both. RESULTS: Of 67 patients with heart failure and no risk factors for other causes of heart failure, 40 of them had serologic tests performed. Thirty-three of these 40 (82.5%) were positive by ELISA, IHA, or both. With 97 blood donors, one or both serologic tests were positive in 17 of them (17.5%). CONCLUSIONS: This research adds to the evidence that Chagas' disease continues to be a major cause of heart failure in some areas of Mexico and that there continues to be a risk of transmission by blood transfusion if donated blood is not consistently screened.

Chagas cardiomyopathy and serologic testing in a small rural hospital in Chiapas, Mexico

OBJETIVO: Llevar a cabo un estudio en un hospital rural pequeño del Estado de Chiapas, México, con el fin de: 1) examinar la prevalencia de miocardiopatía chagásica en pacientes con un diagnóstico de insuficiencia cardíaca congestiva y 2) estimar la prevalencia de positividad serológica en donantes de sangre del hospital, con objeto de determinar si la enfermedad de Chagas sigue siendo una causa importante de insuficiencia cardíaca en algunas partes de México. MÉTODOS: El estudio de los pacientes con miocardiopatía se llevó a cabo mediante la inspección retrospectiva de las fichas de pacientes con un diagnóstico de insuficiencia cardíaca congestiva tratados en el hospital durante el período de 2000­2002. En el caso de los donantes de sangre, los resultados de sus pruebas serológicas fueron revisados durante un período de seis meses que comenzó en abril de 2002. Los pruebas serológicas se efectuaron en ambos grupos mediante hemaglutinación indirecta (HAI) o ensayo de inmunoadsorción enzimática (ELISA), o ambos métodos. RESULTADOS: De 67 pacientes con insuficiencia cardíaca que no tenían factores de riesgo de sufrir otras causas de este trastorno, 40 fueron sometidos a pruebas serológicas. De estos cuarenta, 33 (82,5%) tuvieron resultados positivos en el ELISA, la HAI, o ambos. Del total de 97 donantes de sangre, 17 (17,5%) tuvieron una o dos pruebas con resultados positivos. CONCLUSIONES: Este estudio se suma a las pruebas ya existentes de que la enfermedad de Chagas sigue siendo una de las principales causas de insuficiencia cardíaca en algunas partes de México y de que sigue habiendo un riesgo de transmisión por transfusión de sangre si la sangre donada no se somete a tamizaje con regularidad.