Air quality in Mecca and surrounding holy places in Saudi Arabia during Hajj: initial survey.

The Arabian Peninsula experiences severe air pollution, the extent and sources of which are poorly documented. Each year in Saudi Arabia this situation is intensified during Hajj, the Holy Pilgrimage of Islam that draws millions of pilgrims to Mecca. An initial study of air quality in Mecca and surrounding holy sites during the 2012 Hajj (October 24-27) revealed strongly elevated levels of the combustion tracer carbon monoxide (CO, up to 57 ppmv) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) along the pilgrimage route-especially in the tunnels of Mecca-that are a concern for human health. The most abundant VOC was the gasoline evaporation tracer i-pentane, which exceeded 1200 ppbv in the tunnels. Even though VOC concentrations were generally lower during a follow-up non-Hajj sampling period (April 2013), many were still comparable to other large cities suffering from poor air quality. Major VOC sources during the 2012 Hajj study included vehicular exhaust, gasoline evaporation, liquefied petroleum gas, and air conditioners. Of the measured compounds, reactive alkenes and CO showed the strongest potential to form ground-level ozone. Because the number of pilgrims is expected to increase in the future, we present emission reduction strategies to target both combustive and evaporative fossil fuel sources.

Fine particles exposure and cardiopulmonary morbidity in Jeddah: A time-series analysis.

Health effects linked to PM2.5, have been extensively studied in developed countries of Europe and N. America. However, little has been done in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. This study evaluated the morbidity risk for cardiovascular (CVD) and respiratory (RD) diseases, associated with PM2.5 exposure in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. 24-h PM2.5 sampling was conducted at 3 sites for 6 weeks quarterly from Apr 8th, 2013-Feb 18th, 2014 with simultaneous hospital data collection. The relative risks (RRs) for cardiopulmonary morbidity at different moving averages (MAs) of lagged exposures were estimated using a generalized linear time-series model. Elevated risks for RD were associated with recent PM2.5 exposures (0-2 days). RD prevalence was highest in children 0-14 years. Overall, RD morbidity risk ranged from 1.081 (CI: 1.005-1.162) to 1.096 (CI: 1.023-1.173) at MAs_2-4; male, 1.081 (CI: 1.019-1.146) to 1.087 (CI: 1.020-1.159) at MAs_2-3, and female, 1.086 (CI: 1.007-1.172) to 1.093 (CI: 1.017-1.175) at MAs_2-4. Generally, females 0-14 years were the most at risk for RDs with RR = 1.097 (CI: 1.025-1.174) to 1.148 (CI: 1.049-1.257). CVD morbidity risk was highest in ER visits with overall RR = 1.057 (CI: 1.005-1.111) to 1.137 (CI: 1.065-1.213) across all MAs; male, 1.060 (CI: 1.007-1.204) to 1.131 (CI: 1.060-1.208); female, 1.065 (CI: 1.008-1.125) to 1.116 (CI: 1.045-1.192). PM2.5 exposure showed significantly increased cardiopulmonary morbidity risk, accentuating the severe health effects associated with elevated PM2.5 in Jeddah. Overall, females (0-14 years) were more at risk for RD morbidity than males. CVD morbidity risk was relatively higher in males than females, with highest risk observed in age-groups above 40 years.

Ambient air quality in the holy city of Makkah: A source apportionment with elemental enrichment factors (EFs) and factor analysis (PMF).

Air pollution remains a major global public health and environmental issue. We assessed the levels of PM2.5 and delineated the major sources in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) sampling was performed from February 26, 2014-January 27, 2015 in four cycles/seasons. Samples were analyzed for black carbon (BC) and trace elements (TEs). PM2.5 source apportionment was performed by computing enrichment factors (EFs) and positive matrix factorization (PMF). Backward-in time trajectories were used to assess the long-range transport. Significant seasonal variations in PM2.5 were observed, Spring: 113 ±â€¯67.1, Summer: 88.3 ±â€¯36.4, Fall: 67.8 ±â€¯24, and Winter: 67.6 ±â€¯36.9 µg m-3. The 24-h PM2.5 exceeded the WHO (25 µg m-3) and Saudi Arabia's (35 µg m-3) guidelines, with an air quality index (AQI) of "unhealthy to hazardous" to human health. Most delta-C computations were below zero, indicating minor contributions from bio-mass burning. TEs were primarily Si, Ca, Fe, Al, S, K and Mg, suggesting major contributions from soil (Si, Ca, Fe, Al, Mg), and industrial and vehicular emissions (S, Ca, Al, Fe, K). EF defined two broad categories of TEs as: anthropogenic (Cu, Zn, Eu, Cl, Pb, S, Br and Lu), and earth-crust derived (Al, Si, Na, Mg, Rb, K, Zr, Ti, Fe, Mn, Sr, Y, Cr, Ga, Ca, Ni and Ce). Notably, all the anthropogenic TEs can be linked to industrial and vehicular emissions. PMF analysis defined four major sources as: vehicular emissions, 30.1%; industrial-mixed dust, 28.9%; soil/earth-crust, 24.7%; and fossil-fuels/oil combustion, 16.3%. Plots of wind trajectories indicated wind direction and regional transport as major influences on air pollution levels in Makkah. In collusion, anthropogenic emissions contributed >75% of the observed air pollution in Makkah. Developing strategies for reducing anthropogenic emissions are paramount to controlling particulate air pollution in this region.

Association of fine particulate air pollution with cardiopulmonary morbidity in Western Coast of Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: To assess cardiopulmonary morbidity associated with daily exposures to PM2.5 in Western Coast of Saudi Arabia. Methods: We monitored 24-h PM2.5 and its constituents including black carbon (BC), particulate sulfate (p-SO42-), nitrate (p-NO3-), ammonium (p-NH4+) and trace elements (TEs) at a site in Rabigh, Saudi Arabia from May to June 2013 with simultaneous collection of hospital data (N=2513). Cardiopulmonary morbidity risk was determined in a generalized linear time-series model.  Results: Exposure to PM2.5 was associated with a 7.6% (p=0.056) increase in risk of respiratory disease (RD) in females. Black carbon increased RD morbidity risk by 68.1% (p=0.056) in females. Exposure to p-SO42- increased the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk by up to 5.3% (p=0.048) in males; and RD by 2.9% (p=0.037) in females and 2.5% (p=0.022) in males. The p-NH4+ increased CVD risk by up to 20.3% (p=0.033) in males; and RD by 10.7% (p=0.014) in females and 8% (p=0.031) in males. No statistically significant association was observed for p-NO3- and TEs exposure. Conclusion: Overall, results show an increased risk for cardiopulmonary morbidity following exposure to air pollution.

Climate Change and Water Scarcity: The Case of Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUND: Climate change is expected to bring increases in average global temperatures (1.4°C-5.8°C [34.52°F-42.44°F] by 2100) and precipitation levels to varying degrees around the globe. The availability and quality of water will be severely affected, and public health threats from the lack of this valuable resource will be great unless water-scarce nations are able to adapt. Saudi Arabia provides a good example of how the climate and unsustainable human activity go hand in hand in creating stress on and depleting water resources, and an example for adaptation and mitigation. METHOD: A search of the English literature addressing climate change, water scarcity, human health, and related topics was conducted using online resources and databases accessed through the University at Albany, State University of New York library web page. RESULTS: Water scarcity, which encompasses both water availability and water quality, is an important indicator of health. Beyond drinking, water supply is intimately linked to food security, sanitation, and hygiene, which are primary contributors to the global burden of disease. Poor and disadvantaged populations are the ones who will suffer most from the negative effects of climate change on water supply and associated human health issues. Examples of adaptation and mitigation measures that can help reduce the strain on conventional water resources (surface waters and fossil aquifers or groundwater) include desalination, wastewater recycling and reuse, and outsourcing food items or "virtual water trade." These are strategies being used by Saudi Arabia, a country that is water poor primarily due to decades of irresponsible irrigation practices. The human and environmental health risks associated with these adaptation measures are examined. Finally, strategies to protect human health through international collaboration and the importance of these efforts are discussed. CONCLUSION: International, multidisciplinary cooperation and collaboration will be needed to promote global water security and to protect human health, particularly in low-income countries that do not have the resources necessary to adapt on their own.

Obesity and public health in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Overweight and obesity are now a global epidemic, with more than one in five people qualifying as obese worldwide. These conditions are accompanied by excessive rates of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) related to overweight, like type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases. Saudi Arabia, which has become increasingly westernized over the past few decades now has one of the highest prevalence rates of overweight and obesity, even in children. This puts the population at great risk for increased rates of NCD mortality. Competing cultures is partly to blame, as the combination of persisting traditional Saudi cultural practices, modern cultural changes, and economic prosperity has created an obesogenic environment that promotes unhealthy eating, sedentary lifestyles, and weight gain. Overweight and obesity are more prevalent in Saudi women than in Saudi men. Interventions targeting the environment are needed in order to promote greater health through healthy eating decisions and increased physical activity or exercise (especially for women).