Comparing oncologic outcomes after minimally invasive and open surgery for pediatric neuroblastoma and Wilms tumor.

BACKGROUND: Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has been widely adopted for common operations in pediatric surgery; however, its role in childhood tumors is limited by concerns about oncologic outcomes. We compared open and MIS approaches for pediatric neuroblastoma and Wilms tumor (WT) using a national database. METHODS: The National Cancer Data Base from 2010 to 2012 was queried for cases of neuroblastoma and WT in children ≤21 years old. Children were classified as receiving open or MIS surgery for definitive resection, with clinical outcomes compared using a propensity matching methodology (two open:one MIS). RESULTS: For children with neuroblastoma, 17% (98 of 579) underwent MIS, while only 5% of children with WT (35 of 695) had an MIS approach for tumor resection. After propensity matching, there was no difference between open and MIS surgery for either tumor for 30-day mortality, readmissions, surgical margin status, and 1- and 3-year survival. However, in both tumors, open surgery more often evaluated lymph nodes and had larger lymph node harvest. CONCLUSION: Our retrospective review suggests that the use of MIS appears to be a safe method of oncologic resection for select children with neuroblastoma and WT. Further research should clarify which children are the optimal candidates for this approach.

Understanding parental refusal of permission for child participation in surgical prospective trials.

PURPOSE: The success of prospective randomized trials relies on voluntary participation, which has been perceived as a barrier for successful trials in children who rely on parental permission. We sought to identify the reasons parents decline child participation to understand potential limitations in the consent process. METHODS: A prospective observational study was conducted in 92 patients asked to participate in prospective randomized trials between 2012 and 2015. Parental reasons for refusal were documented. RESULTS: The 92 refusals were distributed between studies investigating the management of circumcision, gastroschisis, pectus excavatum, appendicitis, pyloric stenosis, undescended testicles, abdominal abscess and gastroesophageal reflux. Reasons for refusal included preference of treatment path (37 %), inability to follow up (21 %), unspecified resistance to participate in research (18 %), preference to maintain independent surgeon decision (16 %), and desire for historically standard treatment (8 %). Of the families who opted to pursue a specific treatment arm rather than randomization, 35 % had prior experience with that treatment, 32 % had researched the procedure, 18 % wished to pursue the minimal intervention and 15 % did not specify. CONCLUSIONS: Parental preference of therapy is the most common reason for refusal of study participation. This variable could be influenced with more effective explanation of study rationale and existing equipoise.

Use of patient registries and administrative datasets for the study of pediatric cancer.

Analysis of data from large administrative databases and patient registries is increasingly being used to study childhood cancer care, although the value of these data sources remains unclear to many clinicians. Interpretation of large databases requires a thorough understanding of how the dataset was designed, how data were collected, and how to assess data quality. This review will detail the role of administrative databases and registry databases for the study of childhood cancer, tools to maximize information from these datasets, and recommendations to improve the use of these databases for the study of pediatric oncology.

Irrigation versus suction alone during laparoscopic appendectomy for perforated appendicitis: a prospective randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: The efficacy of irrigating the peritoneal cavity during appendectomy for perforated appendicitis has been debated extensively. To date, prospective comparative data are lacking. Therefore, we conducted a prospective, randomized trial comparing peritoneal irrigation to suction alone during laparoscopic appendectomy in children. METHODS: Children younger than 18 years with perforated appendicitis were randomized to peritoneal irrigation with a minimum of 500 mL normal saline, or suction only during laparoscopic appendectomy. Perforation was defined as a hole in the appendix or fecalith in the abdomen. The primary outcome variable was postoperative abscess. Using a power of 0.8 and alpha of 0.05, a sample size of 220 patients was calculated. A battery-powered laparoscopic suction/irrigator was used in all cases. Pre- and postoperative management was controlled. Data were analyzed on an intention-to-treat basis. RESULTS: A total of 220 patients were enrolled between December 2008 and July 2011. There were no differences in patient characteristics at presentation. There was no difference in abscess rate, which was 19.1% with suction only and 18.3% with irrigation (P = 1.0). Duration of hospitalization was 5.5 ± 3.0 with suction only and 5.4 ± 2.7 days with group (P = 0.93). Mean hospital charges was $48.1K in both groups (P = 0.97). Mean operative time was 38.7 ± 14.9 minutes with suction only and 42.8 ± 16.7 minutes with irrigation (P = 0.056). Irrigation was felt to be necessary in one case (0.9%) randomized to suction only. In the patients who developed an abscess, there was no difference in duration of hospitalization, days of intravenous antibiotics, duration of home health care, or abscess-related charges. CONCLUSIONS: There is no advantage to irrigation of the peritoneal cavity over suction alone during laparoscopic appendectomy for perforated appendicitis. The study was registered with clinicaltrials.gov at the inception of enrollment (NCT00981136).

Single incision versus standard 3-port laparoscopic appendectomy: a prospective randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic appendectomy through a single umbilical incision is an emerging approach supported by several case series. However, to date, prospective comparative data are lacking. Therefore, we conducted a prospective, randomized trial comparing single site umbilical laparoscopic appendectomy to 3-port laparoscopic appendectomy. METHODS: After Internal Review Board approval, patients were randomized to laparoscopic appendectomy via a single umbilical incision or standard 3-port access. The primary outcome variable was postoperative wound infection. Using a power of 0.9 and an alpha of 0.05, 180 patients were calculated for each arm. Patients with perforated appendicitis were excluded. The technique of ligation/division of the appendix and mesoappendix was left to the surgeon's discretion. There were 7 participating surgeons dictated by the call schedule. All patients received the same preoperative antibiotics and postoperative management was controlled. RESULTS: There were 360 patients were enrolled between August 2009 and November 2010. There were no differences in patient characteristics at presentation. There was no difference in wound infection rate, time to regular diet, length of hospitalization, or time to return to full activity. Operative time, doses of narcotics, surgical difficultly and hospital charges were greater with the single site approach. Also, the mean operative time was 5 minutes longer for the single site group. CONCLUSION: The single site umbilical laparoscopic approach to appendectomy produces longer operative times resulting in greater charges. However, these small differences are likely of marginal clinical relevance. The study was registered with clinicaltrials.gov at the inception of enrollment (NCT00981136).

Severity of appendicitis correlates with the pediatric appendicitis score.

PURPOSE: The pediatric appendicitis score (PAS) has been used as a diagnostic tool for the assessment of acute abdominal pain. Our institution has utilized this scoring system as part of a clinical pathway for acute appendicitis. We sought to discover if the PAS could also serve as a prognostic indicator. METHODS: Patients treated within the clinical pathway were divided into three groups (A, B, and C) based on the PAS assigned on admission. Data pertaining to intraoperative findings and length of hospital stay were collected prospectively. RESULTS: In 4 months, 112 patients were enrolled in the study (median age 10.5, range 1-18). 69 of these patients underwent early laparoscopic appendectomy. For group A, 75% had simple appendicitis and 5% were complex. For group B, 68.4% patients had simple appendicitis and 26.3% were complex. For group C, 27.3% were simple and 63.6% were complex. Mean length of hospital stay increased from 1.63 ± 0.34 for patients in group A to 5.9 ± 1.37 for patients in group C. CONCLUSION: Our observational data suggests that the PAS may be a prognostic tool for acute appendicitis. It thereby may impact on preoperative management and postoperative clinical pathways. A larger cohort is necessary to validate our findings.

Appendectomy using single-incision pediatric endosurgery for acute and perforated appendicitis.

BACKGROUND: Single-incision pediatric endosurgical (SIPES) appendectomy has been reported in few pediatric surgical centers. We have adopted the technique recently and have offered it to all patients in whom appendectomy was indicated. The purpose of this study was to report our experience with SIPES appendectomy for acute appendicitis, perforated appendicitis, and interval appendectomy, and to compare the results with those from patients who underwent conventional laparoscopic appendectomy 1 year previously. METHODS: After IRB approval, data on all SIPES appendectomies performed in our hospital were prospectively collected, including operative time, intra- and postoperative complications, conversion rate, blood loss, and hospital length of stay. Cases were stratified into three categories: acute appendicitis, perforated appendicitis, and interval appendectomy. They were compared to patients operated on in 2007 using conventional laparoscopic (three-trocar) appendectomy. RESULTS: During the study period, 75 SIPES appendectomies were undertaken. Mean age was 11 years (range = 2-19 years) and mean weight was 45 kg (range = 12-132 kg). All SIPES appendectomies were completed laparoscopically, and additional trocars were placed in 20% of cases. SIPES interval appendectomies took the longest and had the highest conversion rate (33%). Follow-up data was available in 63 patients (82%) at a median of 3 weeks. There were three wound infections in the SIPES group (4%) and one in the 151 control patients. Compared to historic controls, operative time was shorter with SIPES compared to conventional laparoscopy for acute appendicitis (37 ± 12.3 vs. 44.1 ± 20.3 min, p = 0.01, 95% CI = 32-42 min). CONCLUSION: SIPES appendectomy is a very good alternative to the conventional laparoscopic approach, especially for acute appendicitis. It is technically more challenging for perforated appendicitis and interval appendectomy. Yet, with appropriate consideration and skill, scarless appendectomy is achievable.

Single-incision laparoscopic pyloromyotomy: initial experience.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy has become the standard treatment for hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Single-incision laparoscopic surgery is an emerging operative approach that utilizes the umbilical scar to hide the surgical incision. OBJECTIVE: To describe our initial experience with single-incision laparoscopic pyloromyotomy in 15 infants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy was performed through a single skin incision in the umbilicus, using a 4-mm 30 degrees endoscope and a 5-mm trocar. The 3-mm working instruments were inserted directly into the abdomen via separate lateral fascial stab incisions. All patients were prospectively evaluated. RESULTS: The procedure was performed in 15 infants (13 male) with mean age of 45 +/- 16 days and mean weight of 4.04 +/- 0.5 kg. All procedures were completed laparoscopically, and one case was converted to a conventional triangulated laparoscopic work configuration after a mucosal perforation was noted. The perforation was repaired laparoscopically. On average, operating time was 29.8 +/- 13.6 min, and postoperative length of stay was 1.5 +/- 0.8 days. All patients were discharged home on full feeds. Follow-up was scheduled 2-3 weeks after discharge, and no postoperative complications were noted in any of the patients. CONCLUSIONS: Single-incision laparoscopic pyloromyotomy is a safe and feasible procedure with good postoperative results and excellent cosmesis. The main challenge is the spatial orientation of the instruments and endoscope in a small working space. This can be overcome by a more longitudinally oriented working axis than used in the conventional angulated laparoscopic configuration.

Cervical seatbelt sign is not associated with blunt cerebrovascular injury in children: A review of the national trauma databank.

BACKGROUND: Blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) is a rare consequence of blunt trauma. There appears to be benefit to an aggressive approach to screening for BCVI due to catastrophic sequelae of unrecognized injury. However, screening for BCVI carries extensive cost and oncologic risk to young patients. Foundational BCVI studies examined adults primarily, leaving question to the effectiveness of these criteria in children. We sought to evaluate BCVI screening criteria developed in primarily adult populations using a nationally representative pediatric dataset. METHODS: We queried the 2008-2014 National Trauma Data Bank for patients with BCVI. Patients were stratified by age (adults>18yrs, pediatric≤18yrs). Screening factors from the Modified Denver Criteria and Modified Memphis Criteria (GCS≤8, C1C3 cervical fracture, cervical subluxation, seatbelt sign, basilar skull fracture, mid-facial fracture, mandibular fracture, significant blood loss, coma, stroke, and hanging) were examined using univariate analysis and backwards-stepwise logistic regression to verify predictors of BCVI. RESULTS: Blunt injury occurred in 2,174,244 adults and 422,181 children; 5970 adults and 809 children sustained BCVI. In univariate analysis, all screening factors correlated with BCVI in both groups (p < 0.001). When comparing BCVI patients, children more commonly experienced GCS≤8, seatbelt sign, basilar skull fracture, mid-facial fracture, mandibular fracture, and coma (p < 0.05). In multivariable analysis, seatbelt sign was not associated with pediatric BCVI. CONCLUSION: Many adult-associated BCVI risk factors apply to children. Although children more commonly experience seatbelt sign, it does not independently cause increased BCVI risk. Given the rarity of pediatric BCVI, prospective multi-institutional studies are warranted to establish screening criteria specific to children.

Racial/ethnic differences in necrotizing enterocolitis incidence and outcomes in premature very low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: As advances in neonatal intensive care increase the survival of extremely premature infants, the at-risk population for necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) continues to rise. Although racial health disparities in preterm births have been well documented, large-scale studies exploring racial differences in NEC outcomes are lacking. Here, we conduct a study of racial health disparities in NEC using a nationally representative multicenter cohort. STUDY DESIGN: Infants ≤1500 g birth weight and ≤30 weeks gestational age admitted in the first week after birth to neonatal intensive care units in the Pediatrix Medical group from 1997 to 2015 were included. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of risk factors related to NEC and associated mortality. RESULTS: Of the 126,089 (45% non-Hispanic White, 27% non-Hispanic Black, and 19% Hispanic) infants who met the inclusion criteria, 8796 (7%) developed NEC. On multivariable analysis, non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic infants had higher odds of developing NEC (AOR 1.31, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.24-1.39], p < 0.001 and AOR 1.30 [1.21-1.39], p < 0.001, respectively). Among infants with NEC, mortality was higher in non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic infants compared to non-Hispanic White infants (AOR 1.35 [1.15-1.58], p < 0.001 and AOR 1.31 [1.09-1.56], p = 0.003, respectively). CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates that non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic infants are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with NEC. In addition, non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic infants have higher odds of death after NEC compared to non-Hispanic White infants. Further studies are necessary to investigate the etiology of these health disparities and to test interventions to improve these health outcomes.

A multi-institution analysis of predictors of timing of inguinal hernia repair among premature infants.

PURPOSE: Inguinal hernias are common in premature infants, but there is substantial variation with regards to timing of repair. We sought to quantify and explain this variation. METHODS: Cohort study of infants <34weeks gestation diagnosed with an inguinal hernia and discharged from one of 329 neonatal intensive units between 1998 and 2012. Multivariable logistic regression clustered by site was used to evaluate demographic, clinical, maternal, and socioeconomic variables associated with pre-discharge repair. RESULTS: A total of 8037 infants met study criteria, and 3230 (40%) received a pre-discharge repair. The frequency of pre-discharge repair varied by site from 9% to 84%, and increased over the study period from 20% in 1998 to 45% in 2012. Concurrent gastrostomy or fundoplication and lower socioeconomic status were associated with an increased odds of receiving a pre-discharge repair. CONCLUSION: There is substantial variation with regards to the timing of repair of inguinal hernias in premature infants, with an increasing number of infants receiving repair prior to hospital discharge over time. Concurrent gastrostomy or fundoplication and socioeconomic status are associated with timing of repair. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Ad libitum feeds after laparoscopic pyloromyotomy: a retrospective comparison with a standardized feeding regimen in 227 infants.

PURPOSE: The best feeding regimen after pyloromyotomy for hypertrophic pyloric stenosis continues to be a topic of some debate. Postoperative emesis and length of hospital stay are principal concerns. We compared the outcome of infants after laparoscopic pyloromyotomy who were fed using a standardized feeding regimen or ad libitum. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed the records of 227 infants who underwent laparoscopic pyloromyotomy within a 5-year period. We compared two sets of patients: those fed using a standardized feeding regimen and those fed ad libitum. The choice of feeding regimen was based solely on the attending surgeon's preference. Each group was examined for frequency of postoperative emesis, time to full feeds, and length of hospital stay. RESULTS: Of the 227 patients in the study, 170 (74.9%) were fed using the standardized feeding regimen and 57 (25.1%) were fed ad libitum. The two groups were comparable with respect to age and sex distribution. Although children fed ad libitum had a significantly shorter time to full feeds that those fed a standardized feeding regimen (19.0 vs. 23.1 hours; P < 0.01), there was no significant difference in the frequency of postoperative emesis (1.8 vs. 1.9 times per patient; P = 0.68) or total length of hospital stay (49.0 vs. 50.3 hours; P = 0.73) when the ad libitum and standardized feed groups were compared. There were no complications in either group. CONCLUSION: A standardized feeding regimen offers no advantage over ad libitum feeds for infants who have undergone laparoscopic pyloromyotomy. Infants fed ad libitum are able to tolerate full feeds sooner and the frequency of postoperative emesis is not increased. Ad libitum feeding has become the standard postoperative feeding regimen for infants who have undergone pyloromyotomy at our hospital.

Diagnostic evaluation of ovarian torsion: An analysis of pediatric patients using the Nationwide Emergency Department Sample.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasonography (US) is the diagnostic modality of choice during work-up for ovarian torsion, although computed tomography (CT) may be used. We examined the utilization of CT in girls with ovarian torsion, and determined which patients are most likely to undergo this study. METHODS: The Nationwide Emergency Department Sample dataset was searched for patients <18 years who presented with ovarian torsion from 2006 to 2012. Hospitals were categorized by the volume of pediatric patients seen. RESULTS: A total of 1279 patients were identified. Seven hundred twelve (56%) were seen at adult hospitals, 154 (12%) at pediatric privileged, and 413 (32%) at pediatric hospitals. Patients cared for in a pediatric or pediatric privileged hospital had more US alone performed to diagnose ovarian torsion (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Girls seen at pediatric hospitals are more likely to undergo US for work-up of ovarian torsion.

Outcomes following elective resection of congenital pulmonary airway malformations are equivalent after 3 months of age and a weight of 5 kg.

PURPOSE: Resection of congenital pulmonary airway malformations (CPAMs) is often performed to reduce the risk of recurrent infection and malignant transformation. However, there is substantial variation in the timing of resection. This study was performed to determine the association of age and weight on outcomes following elective resection of CPAMs. METHODS: The American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric database from 2012 to 2014 was queried for infants undergoing elective resection of a CPAM. Infants were categorized based on age (0-3months, 3-6months, 6-9months, 9-12months, and >12months) and weight (0-5kg, 5-10kg, and >10kg). Groups were compared for baseline characteristics and outcomes including a morbidity composite of pneumonia, reintubation, ventilator days >0, reoperation, readmission, hospital length of stay >7days, and mortality. RESULTS: A total of 311 infants met study criteria. The morbidity composite was significantly more common among infants <3months of age compared to infants >3months of age (31.3% vs. 15.6%, p=0.01) and among infants <5kg as compared to infants >5kg (37.5% vs. 15.8%, p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Infants should be observed until three months of age and a weight of five kilograms prior to elective resection of CPAMs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Extracorporeal life support use in pediatric trauma: a review of the National Trauma Data Bank.

PURPOSE: As the role of extracorporeal life support (ECLS) continues to evolve in the adult and pediatric populations, smaller studies and case reports have described successful use of ECLS in specific groups of pediatric trauma patients. To further define the role of ECLS in pediatric trauma, we examined indications and outcomes for use of ECLS in injured children using a large national database. METHODS: All trauma patients ≤18years old were identified from the 2007 to 2011 National Trauma Data Bank. We collected patient demographics, mechanism of injury, injury severity, use of ECLS, and survival to discharge. Children undergoing ECLS were compared to those who did not undergo ECLS, using a 3:1 propensity matched analysis to compare outcomes between ECLS and non-ECLS patients with similar injury patterns. RESULTS: Of 589,895 pediatric trauma patients identified, 36 patients underwent ECLS. Within the ECLS cohort, 21/36 (58%) survived, and 10/36 (28%) were discharged directly home. Most ECLS patients were between 15 and 18years 20/36 (56%). Mechanisms of injury (MOI) resulting in ECLS use included: motor vehicle collision (MVC) 16/36 (44%), gunshot wound (GSW) 6/36 (17%), burns 6/36 (17%), and drowning/suffocation (D/S) 5/36 (14%). Among the ECLS cohort, survival varied by MOI from 75% in D/S to 56% in MVC and 33% in GSW and was 55% in patients with significant head injuries. Using propensity analysis for matched injury patterns, survival for ECLS and non-ECLS patients was similar (58% vs. 65%, p=0.61). CONCLUSIONS: In the largest study to date of ECLS support in pediatric trauma patients, we found encouraging survival rates to discharge, comparable to patients not undergoing ECLS with similar injuries. These results support further use and focused research of ECLS in pediatric trauma, including drowning, burn, and MVC victims and those with significant head injuries. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III; treatment study.

Influence of weight at enterostomy reversal on surgical outcomes in infants after emergent neonatal stoma creation.

PURPOSE: Neonates after emergent enterostomy creation frequently require reversal at low weight because of complications including cholestasis, dehydration, dumping, failure to thrive, and failure to achieve enteral independence. We investigated whether stoma reversal at low weight (< 2.5kg) is associated with poor surgical outcomes. METHODS: Patients who underwent enterostomy reversal from 2005 to 2013 at less than 6months old were identified in our institutional database. Only patients who underwent emergent enterostomy creation (i.e. for necrotizing enterocolitis or spontaneous perforation) were included. Demographics, disease process, comorbidities, stoma type, reversal indication, operative details, and complications were examined. Patients were categorized by weight at reversal of less than 2kg, 2.01-2.5kg, 2.51-3.5kg, and greater than 3.5kg. Data were analyzed using univariable and multivariable regression with significance level of p<0.05. The primary outcome examined was major morbidity, defined as the presence of anastomotic leak, obstruction, hernia, EC fistula, perforation, wound infection, sepsis, or death. RESULTS: Eighty-nine patients met inclusion criteria. Demographics (sex, ethnicity, surgical disease process, reversal indication, and ASA score) were similar. The lowest weight group had lower gestational age (p<0.001) and birth weight (p=0.005), and contained a higher proportion of jejunostomies to ileostomies (p=0.013). On univariable analysis, only incisional hernia was significantly different as a complication between weight groups. On multivariable analysis controlling for gestational age and ASA, there was no significant difference in odds of major operative morbidity between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Enterostomy reversal at lower weight may not be associated with increased risk of perioperative complications. Early stoma reversal may be acceptable when required for progression of neonatal care. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, Treatment Study (Retrospective comparative study).

Current use and outcomes of helicopter transport in pediatric trauma: a review of 18,291 transports.

PURPOSE: The role of helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) in pediatric trauma remains controversial. We examined its use in pediatric trauma and its effectiveness in children with moderate/severe injuries. METHODS: All blunt/penetrating trauma patients ≤18years old in the National Trauma Data Bank were evaluated for use of HEMS and in-hospital mortality. In a comparative effectiveness study, only patients treated at level I/II pediatric centers with injury severity score (ISS)≥9 were included. RESULTS: Of 127,489 included patients, 18,291 (14%) arrived via HEMS, compared to 56% by ground ambulance and 29% by private vehicle/walk-in. HEMS patients had more severe injuries (ISS≥25; 28% vs. 14%) and altered mental status (GCS≤8; 29% vs. 11%), but also contained many patients with only minor injuries or no major physiologic derangements. In unadjusted analysis, HEMS was associated with increased mortality (OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.4-1.7). However, it had decreased mortality by regression (0.5; 0.4-0.6) and propensity analysis (0.7; 0.6-0.8) to adjust for confounders. CONCLUSION: We found multiple indicators for overuse of HEMS, with nearly 40% of children having only minor injuries. In moderate/severe injuries, HEMS is associated with decreased mortality, potentially saving one life for every 47 flights. Research is needed to determine appropriate criteria for helicopter triage. COMPARATIVE STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Predictors of nodal metastasis in pediatric differentiated thyroid cancer.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: There are limited data identifying risk factors for nodal metastasis in children with differentiated thyroid cancer. METHODS: The 1998-2011 Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program database was queried for patients ≤18years of age diagnosed with differentiated thyroid cancer who underwent nodal examination. Patients were grouped by absence or presence of nodal metastasis. Multivariable logistic regression methods were used to identify independent risk factors for nodal metastasis. RESULTS: In total, 1075 children met study criteria: 734 (68%) had nodal metastases, while 341 (32%) did not. After adjustment, risk factors for nodal metastasis included larger tumor size (1.1-2cm: odds ratio [OR] 2.02, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.22-3.34, p=0.006; 2.1-4cm: OR 3.37, 95% CI 2.03-5.60, p<0.001; > 4cm: OR 3.39, 95% CI 1.69-6.81, p=0.001), extrathyroidal extension (OR 7.28, 95% CI 4.07-13.01, p<0.001), and multifocal disease (OR 1.94, 95% CI 1.33-2.84, p=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Increasing tumor size, extrathyroidal extension, and multifocal disease are independent factors associated with nodal metastases in pediatric differentiated thyroid cancer. If these risk factors are present, children with differentiated thyroid cancer should undergo careful preoperative evaluation for evidence of lateral cervical lymph node metastases, and the central compartment should be evaluated intraoperatively, with consideration of central lymphadenectomy. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Necrotizing enterocolitis and the use of loop diuretics in very low birth weight neonates.

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a gastrointestinal disease of premature, very low birth weight neonates resulting in sepsis and death. Loop diuretics are widely used in neonates as a treatment for pulmonary fluid retention. An association between diuretic use and NEC has not been explored. METHODS: The medical records of all neonates admitted to Duke Children's Hospital between 2007 and 2012 with a birth weight ≤1,500 grams were reviewed. RESULTS: Using multivariable logistic regression analysis, we found that loop diuretic administration was not a risk factor for the development of NEC. On subanalysis, 75% of medical NEC infants had prior exposure to loop diuretics, compared with 100% of surgical NEC infants (P = .004). CONCLUSIONS: Loop diuretics do not increase the risk of development of NEC in very low birth weight neonates. However, on diagnosis of NEC, administration of loop diuretics may be associated with the progression of NEC severity from medical NEC to surgical NEC.

Gastrostomy tube placement in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia: Frequency, predictors, and growth outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Gastrostomy tube (G-tube) placement is a common intervention for newborns with severe feeding difficulties. Infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) are at high risk for feeding problems. Prevalence of G-tube placement and consequent nutritional outcomes of infants with CDH and G-tubes has not been described. AIMS: Determine factors associated with G-tube placement and growth in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of infants with CDH to evaluate the association of G-tube placement with risk factors using logistic regression. We also assessed the association between growth velocity and G-tube placement and other risk factors using linear regression. SUBJECTS: The subjects of the study were infants with CDH treated at Duke University Medical Center from 1997 to 2013. OUTCOME MEASURES: Weight gain in infants with CDH that had G-tube placement compared to those infants with CDH that did not. RESULT: Of the 123 infants with CDH, 85 (69%) survived and G-tubes were placed in 25/85 (29%) survivors. On adjusted analysis, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (OR=11.26 [95% CI: 1.92-65.89]; P=0.01) and proton pump inhibitor use (OR=17.29 [3.98-75.14], P≤0.001) were associated with G-tube placement. Infants without G-tubes had a growth velocity of 6.5g/day (95% CI: 2.5-10.4) more than infants with G-tubes. CONCLUSION: Survivors with more complex inpatient courses were more likely to receive G-tubes. Further investigation is needed to identify optimal feeding practices for infants with CDH.