Multidrug resistant Vibrio cholerae O1 from clinical and environmental samples in Kathmandu city.

BACKGROUND: Cholera, an infectious disease caused by Vibrio cholerae, is a major public health problem and is a particularly burden in developing countries including Nepal. Although the recent worldwide outbreaks of cholera have been due to V. cholerae El Tor, the classical biotypes are still predominant in Nepal. Serogroup O1 of the V. cholerae classical biotype was the primary cause of a cholera outbreak in Kathmandu in 2012. Thus, this study was designed to know serotypes and biotypes of V. cholerae strains causing recent outbreak with reference to drug resistant patterns. Moreover, we also report the toxigenic strains of V. cholerae from both environmental and clinical specimens by detecting the ctx gene. METHODS: Twenty four V. cholerae (n = 22 from stool samples and n = 2 from water samples) isolated in this study were subjected to Serotyping and biotyping following the standard protocols as described previously. All of the isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility patterns using the modified Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method as recommended by CLSI guidelines. The screening of the ctx genes (ctxA2-B gene) were performed by PCR method using a pair of primers; C2F (5'-AGGTGTAAAATTCCTTGACGA-3') and C2R (5'-TCCTCAGGGTATCCTTCATC-3') to identify the toxigenic strains of V. cholerae. RESULTS: Among twenty four V. cholerae isolates, 91.7% were clinical and 8.3% were from water samples. Higher rate of V. cholerae infection was found among adults of aged group 20-30 years. All isolates were serogroups O1 of the V. cholerae classical biotype and sub serotype, Ogawa. All isolates were resistant to ampicillin, nalidixic acid and cotrimoxazole. 90.9% were resistant to erythromycin however, tetracycline was found to be the most effective drug for the isolates. All isolates were multidrug resistant (MDR) and possessed a ctx gene of approximately 400 base pairs indicating the toxigenic strains. CONCLUSION: Hundred percent strains of V. cholerae were MDR possessing a ctx gene. It suggests that toxigenic strains be identified and proper antibiotic susceptibility testing be conducted. This will allow effective empirical therapy to be used to treat and control cholera.

Time to articulate a vision for the future of plant proteomics - A global perspective: An initiative for establishing the International Plant Proteomics Organization (INPPO).

Given the essential role of proteomics in understanding the biology of plants, we are establishing a global plant proteomics organization to properly organize, preserve and disseminate collected information on plant proteomics. We call this organization 'International Plant Proteomics Organization (INPPO; http://www.inppo.com).' Ten initiatives of INPPO are outlined along with how to address them in multiple phases. As our vision is global, we sincerely hope the scientific communities around the world will come together to support and join INPPO.

Characterization of a novel rice gene OsATX and modulation of its expression by components of the stress signalling pathways.

In our search to identify gene(s) involved in the rice self-defense responses, we cloned a novel rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Nipponbare) gene, OsATX, a single copy gene, from the JA treated rice seedling leaves cDNA library. This gene encodes a 69 amino acid polypeptide with a predicted molecular mass of 7649.7 and a pI of 5.6. OsATX was responsive to cutting (wounding by cutting the excised leaf), over its weak constitutive expression in the healthy leaves. The critical signalling molecules, jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), abscisic acid (ABA), and hydrogen peroxide, together with protein phosphatase inhibitors, effectively up-regulated the OsATX expression with time, over the excised leaf cut control, whereas ethylene had no affect. Furthermore, copper, a heavy metal, also up-regulated OsATX expression. Moreover, induced expression of OsATX mRNA was influenced by light signal(s), and showed a requirement for de novo synthesized protein factors. Additionally, co-application of either JA or ABA with SA drastically suppressed the induced OsATX mRNA level. Finally, the blast pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea, triggered OsATX mRNA accumulation. These results strongly suggest a function/role(s) for OsATX in defense/stress responses in rice.