Female-specific enhancement of eosinophil recruitment and activation in a type 2 innate inflammation model in the lung.

A sex disparity in asthma prevalence and severity exists in humans. Multiple studies have highlighted the role of innate cells in shaping the adaptive immune system in chronic asthma. To explore the sex bias in the eosinophilic response, we delivered IL-33 to the lungs of mice and delineated the kinetics by which the inflammatory response was induced. Our data demonstrate that females recruited more eosinophils capable of responding to IL-33. Eosinophil activation occurred selectively in the lung tissue and was enhanced in females at all time points. This increase was associated with increased ex vivo type 2 cytokine and chemokine production and female-specific expansion of group 2 innate lymphoid cells lacking expression of the killer-cell lectin-like receptor G1. Our findings suggest that the enhanced eosinophilic response in females is due, firstly, to a greater proportion of eosinophils recruited to the lungs in females that can respond to IL-33; and secondly, to an enhanced production of type 2 cytokines in females. Our data provide insight into the mechanisms that guide the female-specific enhancement of eosinophil activation in the mouse and form the basis to characterize these responses in human asthmatics.

STAT6 inhibitory peptide reduces dendritic cell migration to the lymph nodes to control Th2 adaptive immunity in the mouse lung.

Type 2 immunity in the lung is promoted through the release of innate cytokines, including TSLP, from lung structural cells. These cytokines drive Type 2 immunity in part through upregulation of OX40L on dendritic cells (DCs). DCs expressing OX40L are potent inducers of Th2 differentiation. We have shown previously that STAT6 inhibitory peptide (STAT6-IP), a cell penetrating peptide designed to inhibit the STAT6 transcription factor, reduces the induction of Th2 adaptive immunity in murine models of respiratory syncytial virus infection. Here we show that intranasal administration of STAT6-IP at the time of antigen priming with ovalbumin (OVA), in conjunction with the Nod2 agonist, MDP, reduced frequencies of CD11b+ lung DCs expressing OX40L. Consistent with these reductions, fewer activated DCs were localized to the lung draining lymph nodes in STAT6-IP-treated mice. Upon OVA challenge four weeks later, mice treated with STAT6-IP at the time of OVA/MDP priming did not develop airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and had reduced influx of eosinophils into the airways, mucus production, and serum OVA-specific IgE levels. Our findings provide evidence that the long-lasting inhibitory effects of STAT6-IP are due in part to inhibition of DC responses that drive maladaptive Th2 adaptive immunity and allergic airways disease.

Sex Differences in IL-33-Induced STAT6-Dependent Type 2 Airway Inflammation.

Sex differences in asthma prevalence are well-documented but poorly understood. Murine models have contributed to our understanding of mechanisms that could regulate this sex disparity, though the majority of these studies have examined responses present after Th2 adaptive immunity is established. We have now investigated how sex influences acute activation of innate cell populations in the lung upon initial exposure to the model antigen, ovalbumin (OVA), in the presence of IL-33 (OVA+IL-33), to prime the lungs for type 2 immunity. We also examined how inflammatory responses induced by OVA+IL-33 were altered in mice lacking the STAT6 transcription factor, which is activated by IL-13, an effector cytokine of IL-33. Our data demonstrate that type 2 inflammation induced by OVA+IL-33 was more severe in female mice compared to males. Females exhibited greater cytokine and chemokine production, eosinophil influx and activation, macrophage polarization to the alternatively activated phenotype, and expansion of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). While increases in ILC2s and eosinophils were largely independent of STAT6 in both males and females, many other responses were STAT6-dependent only in female mice. Our findings indicate that a subset of type 2 inflammatory responses induced by OVA+IL-33 require STAT6 in both males and females and that enhanced type 2 inflammation in females, compared to males, is associated with greater IL-13 protein production. Our findings suggest blunted IL-13 production in males may protect against type 2 inflammation initiated by OVA+IL-33 delivery to the lung.

Glycolytic metabolism is essential for CCR7 oligomerization and dendritic cell migration.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are first responders of the innate immune system that integrate signals from external stimuli to direct context-specific immune responses. Current models suggest that an active switch from mitochondrial metabolism to glycolysis accompanies DC activation to support the anabolic requirements of DC function. We show that early glycolytic activation is a common program for both strong and weak stimuli, but that weakly activated DCs lack long-term HIF-1α-dependent glycolytic reprogramming and retain mitochondrial oxidative metabolism. Early induction of glycolysis is associated with activation of AKT, TBK, and mTOR, and sustained activation of these pathways is associated with long-term glycolytic reprogramming. We show that inhibition of glycolysis impaired maintenance of elongated cell shape, DC motility, CCR7 oligomerization, and DC migration to draining lymph nodes. Together, our results indicate that early induction of glycolysis occurs independent of pro-inflammatory phenotype, and that glycolysis supports DC migratory ability regardless of mitochondrial bioenergetics.