Momordica charantia enhances tendon healing in rats: An experimental study.

Momordica charantia (MC) is a traditional plant widely used since ancient times for wound healing. This study evaluated its potential effects on tendon healing. Adult Male Wistar albino rats (n=32, 8 rats in each group) were anesthetized, and their Achilles tendons were prepared for surgical procedures. Group 1 (Cont= control group) were not subjected to any surgery and were used as a control group for baseline values. Group 2 (PR= primary repair group) underwent primary repair (PR) with a monofilament suture after a full-thickness incision of the Achilles tendon. A full-thickness incision was also made to the Achilles tendon of Group 3 (CT=collagen tube administered group), followed by PR and collagen tube insertion. In Group 4 (MC= Momordica charantia-administered group), 1 ml of MC extract was applied locally on the collagen tube in addition to the surgical procedure applied to Group 3. The Achilles tendons were excised on the postoperative 40th day and examined stereologically, histologically, and bioinformatically. Data showed that the total volume of the collagen fibers was higher in MC and CT groups than in the PR group. The total volume of the tendon was decreased in MC and CT groups than in the Cont group. The ratios between the volumes of the collagen fibers and total tendon in the MC and CT groups were significantly different from PR; but not different from the Cont group. Additionally, MC improved tenoblastic activity, collagen production, and neovascularization. Bioinformatic interactions showed that the proteases of MC could trigger the signals playing a role on vasculogenesis, reducing inflammation, and contributing to tenoblast activation and collagen remodeling. MC extract ameliorates the healing of injured tendon and can provide satisfactory tendon repair. Further works are recommended to explore the healing capacity of MC.

The potential protective effects of melatonin and omega-3 on the male rat optic nerve exposed to 900 MHz electromagnetic radiation during the prenatal period.

BACKGROUND: Due to children and adolescents' widespread use of electronic devices, researchers have focused on pre-and early postnatal electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure. However, little is known about the effects of EMF exposure on the optic nerve. The aim of study was to investigate the changes occurring in the optic nerve and the protective effects of melatonin (mel) and omega 3 (ω-3) in rats. METHODS: Thirty-five pregnant rats were divided into seven groups, Cont, Sham, EMF, EMF + melatonin (EMF + Mel), EMF + ω3, Mel, and ω3. The EMF groups were exposed to 900 megahertz (MHz) EMF daily for two hours during pregnancy. After the experiment, the right optic nerve of each offspring rat was removed and fixed in glutaraldehyde. Thin and semi-thin sections were taken for electron microscopic and stereological analyses. Myelinated axon numbers, myelin sheath thicknesses, and axonal areas were estimated using stereological methods. RESULTS: The groups had no significant differences regarding mean numbers of axons, mean axonal areas, or mean myelin sheath thicknesses (p > 0.05). Histological observations revealed impaired lamellae in the myelin sheath of most axons, and vacuolization was frequently observed between the myelin sheath and axon in the EMF-exposed group. The Mel and ω-3-treated EMF groups exhibited well-preserved myelinated nerve fibers and intact astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. CONCLUSIONS: At the ultrastructural level, Mel and ω3 exhibits a neuroprotective effect on the optic nerve exposed to prenatal EMF. The protective effects of these antioxidants on oligodendrocytes, which play an essential role in myelin formation in the central nervous system, now require detailed investigation.

The effect of dietary sesame oil and ginger oil as antioxidants in the adult rat dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve crush injury.

AIM: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary sesame oil and ginger oil supplements on the dorsal root ganglia following a sciatic nerve crush model in male Wistar albino rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Crush injury models have been done by means of graded forceps (50 Newton). The animals were given a daily sesame oil (4 ml/kg/day) and ginger oil (400 mg/kg/day) via oral gavage for a period of 28 days. Dorsal root ganglia from the L5 levels were harvested. Processing of tissues was done for electron microscopy and light microscopy. Immunohistochemical staining with active caspase-3 antibody and qualitative ultrastructural analyses of tissues were made by a light and a transmission electron microscope, respectively. RESULTS: The results showed that crush injury leads to remarkable ultrastructural changes in sensory neurons, such as swollen mitochondria, disruption of cristae structure, glial cell proliferation and, consequently, phagocytosis of the damaged neuron. These ultrastructural changes were less evident in the treated groups, and both natural compounds reduced the expression of activated caspase-3, which may also affect ultrastructural changes. CONCLUSION: The application of the natural products sesame oil and ginger oil may represent a supportive approach to the protection of sensory neurons against the destructive effects of peripheral nerve crush injury.

The investigation of the effects of topiramate on the hypothalamic levels of fat mass/obesity-associated protein and neuropeptide Y in obese female rats.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of topiramate on the fat mass/obesity-associated protein (FTO) and on the neuropeptide Y (NPY) level in the hypothalamus depending on the recently increased prevalence of obesity. METHOD: In this study, twenty-four female rats were divided into four equal groups: Non-obese control, obese control, non-obese topiramate, and obese topiramate. Obese groups were fed with a 40% high-fat diet. At the end of the 9th week, the drug treatment started and the subjects were treated with topiramate once a day for 6 weeks. All animals underwent cardiac perfusion under high-dose anesthesia on the 15th week. Tissues were analyzed using biochemical, histological, and stereological methods. RESULTS: In terms of neuron number in the arcuate nucleus area, a significant difference was observed among all groups (P < 0.01). The neuron number of the non-obese topiramate group was found to be significantly higher than that of the non-obese control group (P < 0.01). In the examination of the ventromedial nucleus of the entire group, it was observed that the neuron number of the non-obese control group was significantly lower than those of the other groups (P < 0.01). A significant increase in the NPY levels of the obese groups compared to the groups treated with topiramate was observed. Furthermore, the amount of the FTO protein increased in obese rats, while FTO and NPY levels decreased in the groups treated with topiramate. DISCUSSION: In conclusion, the mechanism of the effect of topiramate to create a state of obesity is thought to involve the decrease in the levels of NPY and FTO.

Effects of mobile phone exposure on metabolomics in the male and female reproductive systems.

With current advances in technology, a number of epidemiological and experimental studies have reported a broad range of adverse effects of electromagnetic fields (EMF) on human health. Multiple cellular mechanisms have been proposed as direct causes or contributors to these biological effects. EMF-induced alterations in cellular levels can activate voltage-gated calcium channels and lead to the formation of free radicals, protein misfolding and DNA damage. Because rapidly dividing germ cells go through meiosis and mitosis, they are more sensitive to EMF in contrast to other slower-growing cell types. In this review, possible mechanistic pathways of the effects of EMF exposure on fertilization, oogenesis and spermatogenesis are discussed. In addition, the present review also evaluates metabolomic effects of GSM-modulated EMFs on the male and female reproductive systems in recent human and animal studies. In this context, experimental and epidemiological studies which examine the impact of mobile phone radiation on the processes of oogenesis and spermatogenesis are examined in line with current approaches.

Genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields.

New technologies in electronics and communications are continually emerging. An increasing use of these electronic devices such as mobile phone, computer, wireless fidelity connectors or cellular towers is raising questions concerning whether they have an adverse effect on the body. Exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) is frequently suggested to have adverse health effects on humans and other organisms. This idea has been reported in many studies. In contrast, the therapeutic effects of EMF on different organs have also been reported. Research findings are inconsistent. This has given rise to very profound discrepancies. The duration and frequency of mobile phone calls and the association observed with various health effects has raised serious concerns due to the frequency with which these devices are used and the way they are held close to the head. The present review assesses the results of in vitro, in vivo, experimental, and epidemiological studies. The purpose of the study is to assess data concerning the carcinogenic and genotoxic effects of non-ionizing EMF. The major genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of EMF, divided into subsections as low frequency effects and radiofrequency effects, were reviewed. The inconsistent results between similar studies and the same research groups have made it very difficult to make any comprehensive interpretation. However, evaluation of current studies suggests that EMF may represent a serious source of concern and may be hazardous to living organisms.

The genomic effects of cell phone exposure on the reproductive system.

Humans are exposed to increasing levels of electromagnetic fields (EMF) at various frequencies as technology advances. In this context, improving understanding of the biological effects of EMF remains an important, high priority issue. Although a number of studies in this issue and elsewhere have focused on the mechanisms of the oxidative stress caused by EMF, the precise understanding of the processes involved remains to be elucidated. Due to unclear results among the studies, the issue of EMF exposure in the literature should be evaluated at the genomic level on the reproductive system. Based on this requirement, a detail review of recently published studies is necessary. The main objectives of this study are to show differences between negative and positive effect of EMF on the reproductive system of animal and human. Extensive review of literature has been made based on well known data bases like Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus. This paper reviews the current literature and is intended to contribute to a better understanding of the genotoxic effects of EMF emitted from mobile phones and wireless systems on the human reproductive system, especially on fertility. The current literature reveals that mobile phones can affect cellular functions via non-thermal effects. Although the cellular targets of global system for mobile communications (GSM)-modulated EMF are associated with the cell membrane, the subject is still controversial. Studies regarding the genotoxic effects of EMF have generally focused on DNA damage. Possible mechanisms are related to ROS formation due to oxidative stress. EMF increases ROS production by enhancing the activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) oxidase in the cell membrane. Further detailed studies are needed to elucidate DNA damage mechanisms and apoptotic pathways during oogenesis and spermatogenesis in germ cells exposed to EMF.

Comparison of the Regenerative Effects of Platelet-Rich Fibrin and Plasma Rich in Growth Factors on Injured Peripheral Nerve: An Experimental Study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) and plasma rich in growth factors (PRGF) on peripheral nerve injury in the early period of healing. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Thirty Wistar albino rats were used in this study. Rats were divided into control (C), damaged (D), PRF, and PRGF groups. The left sciatic nerves of each group were identified as group C. Crush-type injury was performed on the right sciatic nerves of the D, PRF, and PRGF groups. In the PRF and PRGF groups, blood 2 mL was obtained to prepare the PRF and PRGF and the biomaterials were applied to the injured nerve area. After 8 weeks, functional, electrophysiologic, and stereological evaluations were performed. RESULTS: For the electrophysiologic evaluation, the latency and amplitude values in the D, PRF, and PRGF groups were significantly lower than those in the C group (P > .05). According to the sciatic functional index result, there were significant differences between groups D and PRF and between groups D and PRGF (P = .000). For the stereological evaluations, although no significant difference was observed between the PRGF and C groups (P > .05), a significant difference was observed among the D, PRF, and PRGF groups for myelinated axon number. There were significant differences between groups D and PRF and between groups D and PRGF for axon area (P = .021 and .001, respectively). No significant difference was observed among the D, PRF, and PRGF groups for myelin sheath thickness and ratio of axon area to myelin sheath thickness (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that PRGF increases nerve regeneration in the early period of healing and that the limited early action of PRF should be re-evaluated in the late period.

Could Calcified Triglyceride Bone Cement Be an Alternative Graft Material in Maxillary Sinus Augmentation?

The ideal graft material for maxillary sinus augmentation is still a matter of controversy and the search for a more appropriate bone substitute for use continues. The aim of this study was to evaluate bone formation as a sign of the regeneration following maxillary sinus augmentation in rabbits using 3 different biomaterials, one of which is a newly developed graft material; calcified triglyceride bone cement (CTBC).Twenty-one New Zealand rabbits were used and randomly divided into 3 groups. Bilateral maxillary sinus augmentation was carried out and autogenous bone (AB), bovine hydroxyapatite (BHA), and CTBC were administered. Maxillary sinuses were dissected after fourth and eighth weeks of the operation. The bone formation was evaluated by stereological and histopathological analysis and the data were analyzed statistically.When the volume of primary bone is compared, statistically significant differences were found among all groups at both of the fourth and eighth weeks. The highest value was obtained from AB applied group. In BHA and CTBC applied groups, active bone formation, osseointegration of graft materials were observed at both fourth and eighth weeks. In CTBC applied group, primary bone formation was only seen as linked to the continuation of parent sinus bony wall.The efficiency of primary bone formation of CTBC was found less than AB and BHA. Of the 3 graft materials tested, BHA is the strongest alternative to AB graft for maxillary sinus augmentation.

Effects of platelet-rich plasma on cartilage regeneration after costal cartilage resection: a stereological and histopathological study.

BACKGROUND: In cases of congenital chest wall deformities, it is important to maintain the flexibility of the chest wall after rib cartilage resection. In this study, we aimed to determine the regeneration capability of cartilage and the effects of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) on the regeneration process. METHODS: A total of 16 four-week-old New Zealand rabbits were used in this study. In the 4th-5th right costal cartilages, the perichondrial sheaths were dissected and costal cartilages were excised. Then, the perichondrial sheaths were closed with absorbable material in the sham group (n = 8), and this was done after replacing PRP in the PRP group (n = 8). The left costal cartilages of the animals were used as controls. The volumes of the costal cartilages and their perichondrial sheaths were estimated using Cavalieri's principle. In addition, the mean numerical densities of the chondroblasts and chondrocytes per square millimetre were estimated using unbiased counting frames. RESULTS: In the PRP and sham groups, the volumes of the cartilages and perichondrial sheaths were higher than those of the control group (p < 0.05). The numerical densities of the chondroblasts and chondrocytes increased more in the PRP group than in the sham group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Applying PRP after resection may provide better healing and faster regeneration of cartilage.

Efficacy of neurodevelopmental treatment combined with the Nintendo(®) Wii in patients with cerebral palsy.

[Purpose] The aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of Nintendo(®) Wii games in addition to neurodevelopmental treatment in patients with cerebral palsy. [Subjects and Methods] Thirty hemiparetic cerebral palsy patients (16 females, 14 males; mean age, 6-15 years) were included in the study and divided into two groups: a neurodevelopmental treatment+Nintendo Wii group (group 1, n=15) and a neurodevelopmental treatment group (group 2, n=15). Both groups received treatment in 45-minute sessions 2 days/week for six weeks. Use of the upper extremities, speed, disability and functional independence were evaluated using the Quality of Upper Extremity Skills Test, Jebsen Taylor Hand Function Test, ABILHAND-Kids test, and Pediatric Functional Independence Measure (self-care) before and after treatment. [Results] There were statistically significant improvements in all parameters for group 1 and group 2 (except quality of function) after six weeks of treatment. Intergroup analysis showed that group 1 was superior to group 2 in mean change differences in the Jebsen Taylor Hand Function Test. [Conclusion] Our results showed that neurodevelopmental treatment is effective for improving hand functions in hemiplegic cerebral palsy. To provide a enjoyable, motivational, safe, and effective rehabilitation program, the Nintendo(®) Wii may be used in addition to neurodevelopmental treatment.

Role of vascular endothelial growth factor and placental growth factor expression on placenta structure in pre-eclamptic pregnancy.

AIM: Pre-eclampsia is a hypertensive disease that is characterized by high blood pressure and proteinuria after 20 gestational weeks and complicates 3-8% of all pregnancies. It is classified as either mild or severe pre-eclampsia according to severity, and the aim of this study was to investigate the structural differences between these two classifications. METHODS: Placenta samples were collected from 68 women who underwent cesarean delivery. Total volume of villi and numerical density of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)- and placental growth factor (PIGF)-positive cells were estimated on stereology and evaluated using one-way ANOVA. RESULTS: There was no significantly difference in total villi volumes between the groups (P > 0.05). In contrast, on immunohistochemistry, the numerical density of VEGF-positive cells in severe pre-eclampsia was significantly different to the control and mild pre-eclampsia groups (P<0.05). Additionally, the numerical density of PIGF-positive cells in the mild and severe pre-eclampsia group was significantly higher than in the control group (P<0.01). CONCLUSION: There is no relationship between villi volume and pre-eclampsia, although growth factors play a role in placental changes. The present results were supported by histopathology and several studies in the literature.

Morphological evidence for the potential protective effects of curcumin and Garcinia kola against diabetes in the rat hippocampus.

This research investigated the effects of sciatic nerve transection and diabetes on the hippocampus, and the protective effects of Garcinia kola and curcumin. Thirty-five adults male Wistar albino rats were divided into five groups: a control group (Cont), a transected group (Sham group), a transected + diabetes mellitus group (DM), a transected + diabetes mellitus + Garcinia kola group (DM + GK), and a transected + DM + curcumin group (DM + Cur), each containing seven animals. The experimental diabetes model was created with the intraperitoneal injection of a single dose of streptozotocin. No procedure was applied to the Cont group, while sciatic nerve transection was performed on the other groups. Garcinia kola was administered to the rats in DM + GK, and curcumin to those in DM + Cur. Cardiac perfusion was performed at the end of the experimental period. Brain tissues were dissected for stereological, histopathological, and immunohistochemical evaluations. The volume ratios of hippocampal layers to the entire hippocampus volume were compared between the groups. Anti-S100, anti-caspase 3, and anti-SOX 2 antibodies were used for immunohistochemical analysis. No statistically significant difference was observed in the volume ratios of the four hippocampal layers. However, the volume ratio of the stratum lucidum was higher in the Sham, DM, and DM + Cur groups compared to the Cont group. While curcumin exhibited a protective effect on hippocampal tissue following diabetes induction, Garcinia kola had only a weak protective effect. Increased cell density and nuclear deterioration due to diabetes and nerve transection can be partially ameliorated by treatment with Garcinia kola and curcumin.

Detrimental Effects of Sterilization Types on Single-Use Coronary Angioplasty Catheters for Reuse: An Electron Microscopic Study.

Objective: Reuse of medical devices poses risks concerning technical issues and patient safety. In this study, we aimed to examine the structural changes in catheters that occur due to the reuse with the aid of electron microscopy. Materials and Methods: The effects of hydrogen peroxide (HP) and ethylene oxide (EO) sterilization on four percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) catheters and control PTCA catheters were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Each catheter sample was divided into four parts during the SEM examination, and a total of 20 pieces were examined. Catheters were reprocessed through every regular sterilization step and used solely for the study, not in patients. Statistical evaluations of histological scoring made on images obtained from scanning electron microscopic images were made using the GraphPad Prism 8 program. Results: Electron microscopical examination showed that HP sterilization caused more robust and deeper lines compared to EO. These distortions increased directly with the increase in the reprocessing cycle. In EO, no significant damage was detected within five cycles in contrast to HP; however, the harmful effects of EO were seen over five cycles. Unprocessed samples had no damage. Outer and inner deterioration was significantly higher in the EO>5 group and HP>5 group than in the control group. However, the bacterial contamination score in the EO>5 group was higher than the control group. Conclusion: Our findings showed that HP and EO sterilizations caused some deterioration in the inner and outer surfaces of PTCA catheter samples. We recommend reprocessing using EO, the least damaging method, when necessary, and paying attention not to exceed five cycles when necessary.

The effects of Garcinia kola and curcumin on the dorsal root ganglion of the diabetic rat after peripheral nerve transection injury.

OBJECTIVE: To test the protective effects of Garcinia kola and curcumin on the ganglion tissues of diabetic rats following the use of autologous vein graft in peripheral nerve transection injury. METHODS: The sciatic nerve on the right side was transected, and anastomosis was performed between the proximal and distal ends using an autologous vein graft. Curcumin and Garcinia kola seed extract were administered daily by oral gavage. The ganglion tissues were harvested after a 90-day waiting period. Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion at the L4 and L5 levels were used for stereological evaluations. Mean sensory neuron numbers were analyzed using a stereological technique. The size of the light and dark neurons was also estimated, and ultrastructural and immunohistochemical evaluations were performed. RESULTS: A statistically significant difference in sensory neuron numbers was observed between the groups with and without Garcinia kola and curcumin applications. The immunohistochemical results showed that the s-100 protein is expressed selectively between cell types. CONCLUSION: The results of this study show that curcumin and Garicinia kola prevented sensory neuron loss in diabetic rats following transection injury to the sciatic nerve.

Pigment epithelium-derived factor enhances peripheral nerve regeneration through modulating oxidative stress and stem cells: An experimental study.

Peripheral nerve injury is common and negatively affects an individual's quality of life. Drugs used for peripheral nerve regeneration should aim to eliminate symptoms such as neuropathic pain and have therapeutic effects. In recent studies, pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) has been considered an essential therapeutic agent because of its potential neuroprotective properties. In this study, we aimed to investigate the efficacy of locally applied PEDF for peripheral nerve regeneration. Twenty-four Wistar albino male rats were used. The study groups included Injury (n = 12) and Injury+PEDF (n = 12). An injury model was created by applying 50 N pressure to the right sciatic nerves in groups, and 10 µg/kg local PEDF was injected into the Injury+PEDF group. After 28 days of recovery, functional tests and stereological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical analyses were performed. A significant difference was found between the Injury and Injury+PEDF groups in amplitude, whereas no difference was found in latency. The number of myelinated axons and the myelinated axon area increased significantly in the Injury+PEDF group, while no statistically significant difference was found in myelin sheath thickness. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities were increased by PEDF, whereas they were suppressed in mesenchymal stem cells. PEDF exerts functional, quantitative, and antioxidative effects on sciatic nerve injury during neuroregeneration. In addition, when oxidative stress parameters were examined, it was seen that PEDF reduced oxidative stress following sciatic nerve injury.

Actions of N-acetylcysteine, daptomycin, vancomycin, and linezolid on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilms in the ventriculoperitoneal shunt infections: an experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Shunt systems are used to provide cerebrospinal fluid drainage in the treatment of hydrocephalus. Recently, antibiotic-impregnated shunt systems are used to prevent colonization in the ventriculoperitoneal catheters. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the most common causative microorganism of shunt infections. The aim of the study is to investigate effects of several substances on MRSA biofilms in the ventriculoperitoneal catheters. METHODS: The present study consists of mainly eight groups (each has two subgroups as antibiotic-impregnated and nonantibiotic-impregnated catheters). In addition, each group contains six molds using MRSA strains. In this study, daptomycin (DAPT) (2 mg/ml), vancomycin (VAN) (10 mg/ml), linezolid (LIN) (2 mg/ml), N-acetylcysteine (NAC) (6 mg/ml), and various combinations of these substances were used to evaluate the treatment against MRSA using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images and microbiological enumeration. RESULTS: The colony count in the antibiotic-impregnated samples significantly decreased compared to nonantibiotic-impregnated samples in the MRSA, MRSA + DAPT, and MRSA + LIN groups (p < 0.01), respectively. Conversely, the colony count in antibiotic-impregnated samples significantly increased compared to nonantibiotic-impregnated samples in NAC + DAPT and NAC + VAN groups (p < 0.01), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that the use of antibiotic-impregnated catheters has a significant impact on the prevention of infection whereas the combination of NAC and DAPT showed better antibiofilm and antibacterial effects than other combinations on the prevention and treatment of nonantibiotic-impregnated catheter infections.

Peripheral nerve and diclofenac sodium: Molecular and clinical approaches.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most frequently prescribed medications worldwide. Diclofenac sodium (DS), one of these NSAIDs, has a high specificity for arachidonic acid-degrading cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 enzymes. This drug can be used to relieve neuropathic pain. In this review, we examine the relevant researches, including in vivo, animal, and clinical human studies, with the aim of understanding the effect of DS on the peripheral nerves. In injured nerves, COX-2 is potently upregulated around the injury site. When a nerve is damaged, both COX-1 and COX-2 expression is increased in macrophages and Schwann cells. In addition, COX inhibitors can promote axonal outgrowth in cultured neurons. Neuropathic pain occurs after injury and leads to dysfunction of the peripheral nervous system. NSAIDs can modulate the nociceptive and inflammatory pain pathways and control neuropathic pain. DS may accelerate nerve regeneration and its effects on healing, as well as causing deleterious effects in the developing nerves. DS teratogenicity disrupts myelin sheath thickness and axon structure. Understanding the possible benefits and limitations of DS and specific conditions such as prenatal use will be of benefit in clinical practice.

The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in neurological diseases.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been in use for many years and constitute a large part of prescriptions issued in daily practice. Although NSAIDs are used for many diseases in neurology, they have also been tested as a new therapeutic option for various other diseases. While their effects on headache and cerebrovascular diseases are well known, little is known about their impact on neurodegenerative diseases. This review discusses the use, effects and safety of NSAIDs in neurological diseases.

A brief update on physical and optical disector applications and sectioning-staining methods in neuroscience.

A quantitative description of a three-dimensional (3D) object based on two-dimensional images can be made using stereological methods These methods involve unbiased approaches and provide reliable results with quantitative data. The quantitative morphology of the nervous system has been thoroughly researched in this context. In particular, various novel methods such as design-based stereological approaches have been applied in neuoromorphological studies. The main foundations of these methods are systematic random sampling and a 3D approach to structures such as tissues and organs. One key point in these methods is that selected samples should represent the entire structure. Quantification of neurons, i.e. particles, is important for revealing degrees of neurodegeneration and regeneration in an organ or system. One of the most crucial morphometric parameters in biological studies is thus the "number". The disector counting method introduced by Sterio in 1984 is an efficient and reliable solution for particle number estimation. In order to obtain precise results by means of stereological analysis, counting items should be seen clearly in the tissue. If an item in the tissue cannot be seen, these cannot be analyzed even using unbiased stereological techniques. Staining and sectioning processes therefore play a critical role in stereological analysis. The purpose of this review is to evaluate current neuroscientific studies using optical and physical disector counting methods and to discuss their definitions and methodological characteristics. Although the efficiency of the optical disector method in light microscopic studies has been revealed in recent years, the physical disector method is more easily performed in electron microscopic studies. Also, we offered to readers summaries of some common basic staining and sectioning methods, which can be used for stereological techniques in this review.