Mathematical modelling of an intermittent anoxic/aerobic MBBR: Estimation of nitrification rates and energy savings.

This study aimed at modelling the performance of a novel MBBR configuration, named A/O-MBBR, comprised of a pre-anoxic reactor, with an HRT of 4.5 h, coupled with an intermittent anoxic/aerobic MBBR (HRT = 6.8 h). The lab-scale system was fed with municipal wastewater with an average influent Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN) and total COD (TCOD) concentrations of 46 mg of TAN-N L-1 and 310 mg TCOD L-1. During the whole experimental period, TAN removal efficiency was always higher than 96%; denitrification was also very effective, achieving nitrate and nitrite concentrations in the effluent both lower than 5 mg NOx-N L-1 on average. Moreover, TCOD average removal efficiency was equal to 85%. Modelling was performed to investigate the nitrification efficacy enhancement; to this aim, a biofilm model was developed, adopting the equations for mixed-culture biofilms and the Activated Model Sludge n°1 (ASM1) for the biological processes rates. The model allowed to determine the maximum uptake rate for autotrophic growth (µA was 2.5 d-1) and the semisaturation constant (KOA was 0.2 mg O2 L-1), suggesting that the nitrification process was 3-fold faster than average and very effective at low oxygen concentrations. The model estimated that about 85% of TAN was removed by the biofilm and only the remaining part by suspended biomass in the bulk liquid. Finally, it was assessed that the A/O-MBBR configuration allowed for a 45-60% savings of the energy requirement compared to a Benchmark WWTP layout.

The effects of a full-scale anaerobic side-stream reactor on sludge decay and biomass activity.

A full-scale anaerobic side-stream reactor (ASSR) for sludge reduction was monitored in terms of sludge production and compared with the previous conventional activated sludge configuration (CAS). A detailed solid mass balance was calculated on the whole full-scale plant to estimate the sludge reduction associated with the ASSR. The activity of the biomass, which undergoes alternation of aerobic and anaerobic conditions, was investigated by the respirometric test. The ASSR promoted a reduction of heterotrophic biomass activity and the substrate consumption rate in the activated sludge implemented with ASSR (AS + ASSR) was 36% smaller than in the CAS period. The solid mass balance indicated a sludge reduction of 28%. During the 270-day operation, the observed sludge yield passed from 0.438 kgTSS/kgCOD in the CAS to 0.315 in the AS + ASSR configuration. The solubilization of chemical oxygen demand (COD), NH4 +-N and orthophosphate were verified under anaerobic conditions. The results suggest that the possible mechanisms of sludge reduction were the increase of the system sludge retention time (SRT) by ASSR addition, and the reduction in heterotrophic biomass activity added to the organic compounds' hydrolysis.

Laboratory-scale investigation on the role of microalgae towards a sustainable treatment of real municipal wastewater.

Engineered microalgal-bacteria consortia are an attractive solution towards a low-cost and sustainable wastewater treatment that does not rely on artificial mechanical aeration. In the research conducted for this study, a bench-scale photo-sequencing-batch reactor (PSBR) was operated without external aeration. A spontaneous consortium of microalgae and bacteria was developed in the PSBR at a concentration of 0.8-1.7 g TSS/L. The PSBR ensured removal efficiency of 85 ± 8% for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and 98 ± 2% for total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN). Nitrogen balance revealed that the main mechanisms for TKN removal was autotrophic nitrification, while N assimilation and denitrification accounted for 4% and 56%, respectively. The development of dense microalgae-bacteria bioflocs resulted in good settleability with average effluent concentration of 16 mgTSS/L. The ammonium removal rate was 2.9 mgN L-1 h-1, which corresponded to 2.4 mgN gTSS-1 h-1. Although this specific ammonium removal rate is similar to activated sludge, the volumetric rate is lower due to the limited total suspended solids (TSS) concentration (three times less than activated sludge). Therefore, the PSBR footprint appears less competitive than activated sludge. However, ammonium was completely removed without artificial aeration, resulting in a very cost-effective process. Only 50% of phosphorus was removed, suggesting that further research on P uptake is needed.

Enhanced nitrogen removal and energy saving in a microalgal-bacterial consortium treating real municipal wastewater.

The optimization of total nitrogen removal from municipal wastewater was investigated in a laboratory-scale photo-sequencing batch reactor (PSBR) operated with a mixed microalgal-bacterial consortium spontaneously acclimatized to real wastewater. No external aeration was provided in the PSBR to reduce energy consumption: oxygen was only supplied by the microalgal photosynthesis. The enhancement of total nitrogen removal was achieved through: (1) feeding of wastewater in the dark phase to provide readily biodegradable COD when oxygen was not produced, promoting denitrification; (2) intermittent use of the mixer to favor simultaneous nitrification-denitrification inside the dense flocs and to achieve 41% energy saving with respect to continuous mixing. Efficient COD removal (86 ± 2%) was observed, obtaining average effluent concentrations of 37 mg/L and 22 mg/L of total COD and soluble COD, respectively. TKN removal was 97 ± 3%, with an average effluent concentration of 0.5 ± 0.7 mg NH4 +-N/L. Assimilation of nitrogen by heterotrophic bacteria accounted only for 20% of TKN removal, whilst the major part of TKN was nitrified. In particular, the nitrification rate was 1.9 mgN L-1 h-1 (specific rate 2.4 mgN gTSS-1 h-1), measured with dissolved oxygen near zero, when the oxygen demand was higher than the oxygen produced by photosynthesis. Total nitrogen of 6.3 ± 4.4 mgN/L was measured in the effluent after PSBR optimization.

Anaerobic side-stream reactor for excess sludge reduction: 5-year management of a full-scale plant.

The long-term performances of a full-scale anaerobic side-stream reactor (ASSR) aimed at sludge reduction have been monitored for the first time, in comparison with a conventional activated sludge process (CAS). The plant was integrated with an ASSR treatment of 2293-3293 m(3). Operational parameters in the ASSR were: ORP -250 mV, interchange ratio of 7-10%, hydraulic retention time of 7 d. No worsening of effluent quality was observed in the ASSR configuration and removal efficiency of COD and NH4 was above 95%. A slight increase in the Sludge Volume Index did not cause worsening in effluent solids concentration. The observed sludge yield (Yobs) passed from 0.44 kgTSS/kgCOD in the CAS to 0.35 in the ASSR configuration. The reduction of Yobs by 20% is lower than expected from the literature where sythetic wastewater is used, indicating that sludge reduction efficiency is largely affected by inert mass fed with influent real wastewater. An increase by 45% of the ASSR volume did not promote a further reduction of Yobs, because sludge reduction is affected not solely by endogenous decay but also by other factors such as interchange ratio and aerobiosis/anaerobiosis alternation.

Influence of high organic loads during the summer period on the performance of hybrid constructed wetlands (VSSF + HSSF) treating domestic wastewater in the Alps region.

One of the limits for the application of constructed wetlands (CWs) in mountain regions (such as the Alps) is associated with the considerable land area requirements. In some mountain areas, the treatment of domestic wastewater at popular tourist destinations is particularly difficult during the summer, when the presence of visitors increases hydraulic and organic loads. This paper aims to evaluate whether a hybrid CW plant designed on the basis of the resident population only, can treat also the additional load produced by the floating population during the tourist period (summer, when temperatures are favourable for biological treatment), without a drastic decrease of efficiency and without clogging problems. The research was carried out by considering two operational periods: the first one was based on literature indications (3.2 m(2)/PE in the VSSF unit) and the second one assumed higher hydraulic and organic loads (1.3 m(2)/PE in the VSSF unit). The removal efficiency in the hybrid CW system decreased slightly from 94 to 88% for COD removal and from 78 to 75% for total N removal, even after applying a double hydraulic (from 55 to 123 L m(-2) d(-1)) and organic load (from 37 to 87 g COD m(-2) d(-1) and from 4.4 to 10.3 g TKN m(-2) d(-1)). The results showed that in the summer period the application of high loads did not affect the efficiency of the hybrid CW plant significantly, suggesting that it is possible to refer the CW design to the resident population only, with subsequent considerable savings in superficial area.

Sewage Sludge Management at District Level: Reduction and Nutrients Recovery via Hydrothermal Carbonization.

In this study, two scenarios of a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) are presented, which include the integration of the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) process into the sludge line as a post-treatment of the anaerobic digestion (AD) process. The objective of the simulation is to investigate the performances of AD + HTC treatment to reduce sludge production and improve nutrient and energy recovery. For this purpose, the scheme of an under-construction WWTP was considered, named Trento 3 (Trento, Italy) and with a treatment capacity of 300,000 PE. In the first scenario, the HTC process was fed with thickened sludge from the Trento 3 WWTP, while in the second scenario, dewatered sludge from other local WWTPs was also used as feedstock for the HTC process. Both scenarios allowed to obtain a considerable sludge reduction ranging from 70 to 75% with a notably increase in the biogas production up to 47%, due to the recycling of HTC liquor (HTCL) to the anaerobic digester. Considering nutrients recovery, all the phosphorus and nitrogen present in the HTCL could be used for struvite precipitation with an average yearly gain of 1 million euros. Moreover, the introduction of HTC in the Trento 3 WWTP could allow a reduction in the sludge management costs of up to 2 M€/year.

Alternate anoxic/aerobic operation for nitrogen removal in a membrane bioreactor for municipal wastewater treatment.

A large pilot-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) with a conventional denitrification/nitrification scheme for municipal wastewater treatment has been run for one year under two different aeration strategies in the oxidation/nitrification compartment. During the first five months air supply was provided according to the dissolved-oxygen set-point and the system run as a conventional predenitrification MBR; then, an intermittent aeration strategy based on effluent ammonia nitrogen was adopted in the aerobic compartment in order to assess the impact on process performances in terms of N and P removal, energy consumption and sludge reduction. The experimental inferences show a significant improvement of the effluent quality as COD and total nitrogen, both due to a better utilization of the denitrification potential which is a function of the available electron donor (biodegradable COD) and electron acceptor (nitric nitrogen); particularly, nitrogen removal increased from 67% to 75%. At the same time, a more effective biological phosphorus removal was observed as a consequence of better selection of denitrifying phosphorus accumulating organisms (dPAO). The longer duration of anoxic phases also reflected in a lower excess sludge production (12% decrease) compared with the standard pre-denitrification operation and in a decrease of energy consumption for oxygen supply (about 50%).

Kinetics of heterotrophic biomass and storage mechanism in wetland cores measured by respirometry.

Although oxygen uptake rate has been widely used in activated sludge for measuring kinetic and stoichiometric parameters or for wastewater characterization, its application in constructed wetlands (CWs) cores has been recently proposed. The aim of this research is to estimate the kinetic and stoichiometric parameters of the heterotrophic biomass in CW cores. Respirometric tests were carried out with pure carbonaceous substrate and real wastewater. Endogenous respiration was about 2 gO2 m(-3) h(-1) (per unit of bed volume), while the kinetic parameters obtained for COD oxidation were very high (maximum rate per unit of bed volume of 10.7-26.8 gCOD m(-3) h(-1)) which indicates high biodegradation potential in fully aerobic environment. Regarding to stoichiometric parameter, the maximum growth yield, Y(H), was 0.56-0.59 mgCOD/mgCOD, while the storage yield, Y(STO), was 0.75-0.77 mgCOD/mgCOD. The storage mechanism was observed in CW cores during COD oxidation, which leads to the transformation of the external soluble substrate in internal storage products, probably as response to intermittent loads applied in CW systems, transient concentrations of readily biodegradable substrate and alternance of feast/famine periods.

Biological treatment of winery wastewater: an overview.

The treatment of winery wastewater can realised using several biological processes based both on aerobic or anaerobic systems using suspended biomass or biofilms. Several systems are currently offered by technology providers and current research envisages the availability of new promising technologies for winery wastewater treatment. The present paper intends to present a brief state of the art of the existing status and advances in biological treatment of winery wastewater in the last decade, considering both lab, pilot and full-scale studies. Advantages, drawbacks, applied organic loads, removal efficiency and emerging aspects of the main biological treatments were considered and compared. Nevertheless in most treatments the COD removal efficiency was around 90-95% (remaining COD is due to the un-biodegradable soluble fraction), the applied organic loads are very different depending on the applied technology, varying for an order of magnitude. Applied organic loads are higher in biofilm systems than in suspended biomass while anaerobic biofilm processes have the smaller footprint but in general a higher level of complexity.

Membrane bioreactors for winery wastewater treatment: case-studies at full scale.

The membrane bioreactor technology (MBR) is nowadays a suitable alternative for winery wastewater treatment, thanks to low footprint, complete suspended solids removal, high efficiency in COD abatement and quick start-up. In this paper, data from two full-scale MBRs equipped with flat-sheet membranes (plant A and plant B) are presented and discussed. COD characterisation by respirometry pointed out the high biodegradability degree of both wastewater, with a strong prevalence of the readily biodegradable fraction. An extended version of Activated Sludge Model No. 3 was used to fit the experimental OUR profiles and to assess the maximum growth rate of heterotrophic biomass on sludge samples collected at both sites; the stoichiometric yield coefficients were also calculated. Sludge filterability and dewaterability were investigated with batch tests; laboratory results confirmed the field observations. Finally, some considerations are listed, aimed at defining possible key-issues for optimal process design and operation.

Progress toward full scale application of the anaerobic side-stream reactor (ASSR) process.

In order to reduce the investment costs of the anaerobic side-stream reactor (ASSR) process coupled with an activated sludge system and promote the full scale application, the impact of 1 d anaerobic solid retention time (SRTASSR) and 100% interchange ratio (IR) has been investigated on sludge reduction, carbon and nutrient removal efficiency and microbial community, in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR)-ASSR system. The SBR-ASSR achieved good removal efficiencies in COD (91.5 ±â€¯3.4%), ammonium nitrogen (98.8 ±â€¯0.5%), total nitrogen (87.9 ±â€¯4.9%) and phosphate (92.8 ±â€¯6.7). The sludge yield of the system was 0.1648 g TSS g-1COD; 54% lower compared to a conventional activated sludge (CAS) system. Real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR) showed an abundance of hydrolyzing and fermentative bacteria. Comparison at class and genus level confirmed an abundance of anaerobic hydrolyzing and fermentative bacteria, denitrifying bacteria able to simultaneous perform nitrogen and phosphate removal and phosphate accumulating organisms.

Application of real-time nitrogen measurement for intermittent aeration implementation in a biological nitrogen removal system: performances and efficiencies.

Several automatic strategies for aeration control have been investigated so far to favor a significant decrement of energy consumptions in biological processes in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Above all, the intermittent aeration process has demonstrated to have several advantages. This work reports the results of a case study made in a small municipal WWTP where an intermittent aeration control strategy based on the online measurement of real-time nitrogen forms has been implemented to optimize the nitrogen removal and the energy consumption in an activated process. High organic removal efficiency was achieved during the whole experimental period. Results indicated that nitrogen removal efficiency has been improved, especially during winter months, by the control strategy adopted that helped to determine the perfect length for the nitrification and denitrification phases. The intermittent aeration process increased the activity of the biomass, further selecting phosphate-accumulating bacteria and improving the growth of bacteria able to internally store carbon source. Excellent effects were achieved on energy and chemical consumption, with a reduction of about 15% and 23%, respectively. Finally, a 12% reduction of sludge production was also detected.

Impact of chemical cleaning and air-sparging on the critical and sustainable flux in a flat sheet membrane bioreactor for municipal wastewater treatment.

The paper discusses the experimental optimisation of both chemical and mechanical cleaning procedures for a flat-sheet submerged membrane bioreactor fed with municipal wastewater. Fouling was evaluated by means of the critical flux concept, which was experimentally measured by short-term flux-stepping tests. By keeping constant most important parameters of the biological process (MLSS, sludge age), two different chemical cleaning protocols (2,000 mg L(-1) NaOCl and 200 mg L(-1) NaOCl) were applied with different frequency and, after approximately 9 months of operation, the criticality threshold was determined under different values of SAD(m) (specific aeration demand per unit of membrane surface area). The weaker and more frequent chemical cleaning regime (200 mg L(-1), monthly) proved much more effective than the stronger and less frequent strategy (2,000 mg L(-1), once every three months). The improvement of performances was quantified by two TMP-based parameters, the fouling rate and the DeltaTMP (difference between TMP values during the increasing and decreasing phase of hysteresis). The best performing configuration was then checked over a longer period by running four long-term trials showing an exponential trend of the sub-critical fouling rate with the imposed flux.

Heavy metal removal from winery wastewater in the case of restrictive discharge regulation.

In most cases of winery effluent, the heavy metal content, especially zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu), does not meet the limits for the discharge as imposed by the most restrictive regulations at international level (0.4 mgCu/L and 1.0 mgZn/L in the Italian regulations). An alternative for the reduction of Cu and Zn is the on-site pre-treatment of wastewater at the winery in order to meet the limits for the discharge into the public sewerage. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a pre-treatment based on chemical precipitation with chelating agents (TMT: 2,4,6-trimercaptotriazine), for the reduction of Cu and Zn from raw winery wastewater. The chemical precipitation was optimised at lab-scale through jar tests in order to evaluate the optimal dosages. An average dosage equal to 0.84 mL of TMT (15%) for 1 mg of Cu removed was estimated. Furthermore, the efficiency of the on-site chemical pre-treatment was investigated at pilot scale. The results confirmed the feasibility of using TMT treatment for the reduction of Cu and Zn in order to meet the limits for discharge into the sewerage. Contextually to the removal of heavy metals, the chemical pre-treatment allowed us to obtain the reduction of particulate COD and TSS. Finally, the costs for the operation and the management of the on-site pre-treatment were evaluated.

Respirometric techniques for assessment of biological kinetics in constructed wetland.

The aim of this research was the development of a procedure to measure biological kinetics of organic matter oxidation and nitrification in constructed wetland, by using respirometric techniques. Columns simulating cores of vertical subsurface flow systems were investigated. The oxygen uptake rate (OUR) of the columns was calculated on the basis of the difference of DO concentrations measured continuously at the top and at the bottom of the column. From the respirogram, the following kinetic parameters have been evaluated: maximum rate of oxidation of readily biodegradable COD, maximum rate of nitrification, endogenous respiration of the biomass grown inside the bed. In order to improve the interpretation of the respirograms, additional respirometric tests were carried out on the wetland columns by using pure substrates, such as acetate (carbon source) and ammonium (substrate for nitrification). The kinetic parameters obtained from respirograms can be useful for control and design of constructed wetlands or for improving nutrient and carbon mass balances.

Treatment of winery wastewater in a full-scale fixed bed biofilm reactor.

The treatment of winery wastewater was performed at full-scale applying a two-stage fixed bed biofilm reactor (FBBR) system for the discharge in the sewerage. The results of the first year of operation at the full-scale plant are presented. Values of removed organic loads and effluent concentrations were interpreted on the basis of the COD fractionation of influent wastewater assessed through respirometric tests. The average removal efficiency of total COD was 91 %. It was not possible to reach an higher efficiency because of the unbiodegradable soluble fraction of COD (about 10% of total COD on average during the whole year), that cannot be removed by biological process or settling. Due to the high empty space offered by the plastic carriers, FBBRs did not require backwashing during the seasonal operationing period of the plant (September-March). In comparison with other treatment systems the FBBR configuration allows one to ensure a simple management, to obtain high efficiency also in the case of higher fluctuations of flow and loads and to guarantee a good settleability of the sludge, without bulking problems.

Concerning the role of cell lysis-cryptic growth in anaerobic side-stream reactors: the single-cell analysis of viable, dead and lysed bacteria.

In the Anaerobic Side-Stream Reactor (ASSR), part of the return sludge undergoes alternating aerobic and anaerobic conditions with the aim of reducing sludge production. In this paper, viability, enzymatic activity, death and lysis of bacterial cells exposed to aerobic and anaerobic conditions for 16 d were investigated at single-cell level by flow cytometry, with the objective of contributing to the understanding of the mechanisms of sludge reduction in the ASSR systems. Results indicated that total and viable bacteria did not decrease during the anaerobic phase, indicating that anaerobiosis at ambient temperature does not produce a significant cell lysis. Bacteria decay and lysis occurred principally under aerobic conditions. The aerobic decay rate of total bacteria (bTB) was considered as the rate of generation of lysed bacteria. Values of bTB of 0.07-0.11 d(-1) were measured in anaerobic + aerobic sequence. The enzymatic activity was not particularly affected by the transition from anaerobiosis to aerobiosis. Large solubilisation of COD and NH4(+) was observed only under anaerobic conditions, as a consequence of hydrolysis of organic matter, but not due to cell lysis. The observations supported the proposal of two independent mechanisms contributing equally to sludge reduction: (1) under anaerobic conditions: sludge hydrolysis of non-bacterial material, (2) under aerobic conditions: bacterial cell lysis and oxidation of released biodegradable compounds.

On-line control of a SBR system for nitrogen removal from industrial wastewater.

In this study, laboratory-scale experiments were conducted applying the SBR activated sludge process to a wastewater from a wood factory operating on plywood production. Due to the fact that the wastewater is characterised with a high concentration of ammonia, the aim was to evaluate the nitrogen removal process with SBR system operating with a on-line control of ORP, pH and DO. The complete ammonia removal corresponded exactly to the "Ammonia Valley" in the pH versus time graphic. The ammonia removal efficiency in SBR was 99% at 20 degrees C. The denitrification reaction was completed when in the ORP versus time graphic appeared the "Nitrate Knee". From the experimental results the optimisation of the SBR cycle allowed the doubling of the applied load with respect to a not optimised cycle (performed in the same volume reactor), without a decrease in the removal efficiency. Moreover, the possibility of stopping the aeration just after the appearance of the Ammonia Valley allows an energy saving. The easy operation and the low cost make the SBR system an interesting option for the biological pre-treatment of plywood industry to be discharged into surface water.

Experimental validation of a single-OUR method for wastewater RBCOD characterisation.

Wastewater characterisation is of primary importance for the correct design and management of a treatment plant. The aim of this work was the evaluation of a new rapid and easy to use respirometric technique for the characterisation of readily biodegradable COD (RBCOD). When the necessary calibration curve is obtained, the RBCOD assessment procedure needs less than 30 minutes. On the contrary, conventional techniques require some hours. The first step consists in calculating a calibration curve in order to point out the correlation between oxygen consumed and known amount of added Sodium Acetate. To a well aerated biomass (in order to remove residual readily biodegradable substrate) a known amount of Sodium Acetate is added and the related OUR is measured. The oxygen consumed (delta DO) is related to the added COD (as Sodium Acetate). Therefore, the RBCOD concentration in wastewater samples can be obtained according to the following steps: (1) measure delta DO; (2) multiply delta DO by the Volume of aerated mixed liquor used in the test; (3) from the calibration curve, calculate the readily biodegradable COD equivalent to Acetate; (4) estimate RBCOD concentration multiplying the wastewater sample volume tested in the reactor. Some advantages of this technique are described in the paper.