Neighbourhood effect and inequality in access to essential health services among mother-child paired samples: a decomposition analysis of data from 58 low- and middle-income countries.

INTRODUCTION: Neighbourhood effect on health outcomes is well established, but little is known about its effect on access to essential health services (EHS). Therefore, this study aimed to assess the contributing factors to access to EHS in slum versus non-slum settings. METHODOLOGY: The most recent data from 58 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted between 2011 and 2018 were used, including a total of 157,000 pairs of currently married women aged 15-49 and their children aged 12-23 months. We used meta-analysis techniques to examine the inequality gaps in suboptimal access to EHS between mother-children pairs living in slums and non-slums. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition technique was used to identify the factors contributing to the inequality gaps in each low- and middle-income country (LMIC) included. RESULT: The percentage of mother-child pairs living in slums ranged from 0.5% in Egypt to 63.7% in Congo. Meta-analysis of proportions for the pooled sample revealed that 31.2% [27.1, 35.5] of slum residents and 20.0% [15.3, 25.2] among non-slum residents had suboptimal access to EHS. We observed significant pro-slum inequalities in suboptimal access to EHS in 28 of the 52 LMICs with sufficient data. Of the 34 African countries included, 16 showed statistically significant pro-slum inequality in suboptimal access to EHS, with the highest in Egypt and Mali (2.64 [0.84-4.44] and 1.76 [1.65, 1.87] respectively). Findings from the decomposition analysis showed that, on average, household wealth, neighbourhood education level, access to media, and neighbourhood-level illiteracy contributed mostly to slum & non-slum inequality gaps in suboptimal access to EHS. CONCLUSION: The study showed evidence of inequality in access to EHS due to neighbourhood effects in 26 LMICs. This evidence suggests that increased focus on the urban poor might be a important for increasing access to EHS and achieving the universal health coverage (UHC) goals.

Trends in the Intraindividual Double Burden of Overweight/Obesity and Anemia among Adult Women Living in 33 Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Secondary Analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys from 2000-2019.

BACKGROUND: Changes in overweight/obesity and anemia among women have been investigated in multiple studies, but the rate at which their coexistence at the individual level has evolved remains unknown. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to 1) document trends in the magnitude and inequalities of the co-occurrence of overweight/obesity and anemia; and 2) compare these with overall trends in overweight/obesity, anemia, and the co-occurrence of anemia with normal weight or underweight. METHODS: For this cross-sectional series study, we used 96 Demographic and Health Surveys from 33 countries with available anthropometric and anemia data among nonpregnant adult women (20-49 y old; n = 1,648,308). The primary outcome was defined as the coexistence of overweight or obesity (BMI ≥25kg/m2) and anemia (hemoglobin concentrations <12.0 g/dL) within the same individual. We computed overall and regional trends through multilevel linear regression models and by sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., wealth, education, and residence). Estimates at the country level were calculated through ordinary least square regression models. RESULTS: From 2000 to 2019, the co-occurrence of overweight/obesity and anemia increased modestly at an annual rate of 0.18 percentage points (95% CI: 0.08, 0.28 percentage points; P < 0.001), ranging from 0.73 percentage points in Jordan to -0.56 percentage points in Peru. This trend occurred in parallel with overall increases in overweight/obesity and reductions in anemia. The co-occurrence of anemia with normal weight or underweight was reducing in all countries, except Burundi, Sierra Leone, Jordan, Bolivia, and Timor-Leste. Stratified analyses yielded an upward trend in the co-occurrence of overweight/obesity and anemia across all subgroups but particularly in women from the 3 middle wealth groups, no education, and capital city or rural residents. CONCLUSIONS: The rising trend in the intraindividual double burden suggests that efforts to reduce anemia among women living with overweight/obesity may need to be revisited to accelerate progress toward the 2025 global nutrition target of halving anemia.

Malaria profile and socioeconomic predictors among under-five children: an analysis of 11 sub-Saharan African countries.

BACKGROUND: African region accounts for 95% of all malaria cases and 96% of malaria deaths with under-five children accounting for 80% of all deaths in the region. This study assessed the socioeconomic determinants of malaria prevalence and provide evidence on the socioeconomic profile of malaria infection among under-five children in 11 SSA countries. METHODS: This study used data from the 2010 to 2020 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). The survey used a two-stage stratified-cluster sampling design based on the sampling frame of the population and housing census of countries included. Statistical analyses relied on Pearson's χ2, using the CHAID decision-tree algorithm and logistic regression implemented in R V.4.6. RESULTS: Of 8547 children considered, 24.2% (95% confidence interval CI 23.4-25.05%) had malaria infection. Also, the prevalence of malaria infection seems to increase with age. The following variables are statistically associated with the prevalence of malaria infection among under-five children: under-five child's age, maternal education, sex of household head, household wealth index, place of residence, and African region where mother-child pair lives. Children whose mothers have secondary education have about 56% lower risk (odds ratio = 0.44; 95% CI 0.40-0.48) of malaria infection and 73% lower (odds ratio = 0.37; 95% CI 0.32-0.43) among children living in the richest households, compared to children living in the poorest households. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study provide unique insights on how socioeconomic and demographic variables, especially maternal education level significantly predicts under-five malaria prevalence across the SSA region. Therefore, ensuring that malaria interventions are underpinned by a multisectoral approach that comprehensively tackles the interplay of maternal education and other socioeconomic variables will be critical in attaining malaria prevention and control targets in SSA.

High-risk fertility behaviours among women in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: High-risk fertility behaviours such as too early or advanced age at delivery, shorter birth interval, birth order and a higher number of live births to a woman often lead to adverse maternal and child health outcomes. We assessed high-risk fertility behaviours and their associated factors among women in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). METHODS: Data on 200 716 women pooled from the demographic and health surveys of 27 countries conducted between 2010 and 2020 in SSA were analysed. High-risk fertility behaviour from four indicators, mother aged <18 years at the time of delivery; mother aged >34 years at the time of delivery; mother of a child born after a short birth interval (<24 months) and mother of high parity (>3 children), was derived. Multi-level multi-variable logistic regression analyses were carried out and the results were presented as adjusted odds ratios at 95% confidence interval. RESULTS: Women who were in polygamous marriages had higher odds of single and multiple high-risk fertility behaviour compared with their counterparts who were in monogamous marriages. Women with middle or high maternal decision-making power had higher odds of single and multiple high-risk fertility behaviours compared with those with low decision-making power. Single and multiple high-risk fertility behaviours were lower among women with access to family planning, those with at least primary education and those whose partners had at least primary education compared with their counterparts who had no access to family planning, those with no formal education and those whose partners had no formal education. CONCLUSION: Family structure, women's decision-making power, access to family planning, women's level of education and partners' level of education were identified as predictors of high-risk fertility behaviours in SSA. These findings are crucial in addressing maternal health and fertility challenges. Policy makers, maternal health and fertility stakeholders in countries with high prevalence of high parity and short birth intervals should organize programs that will help to reduce the prevalence of these high-risk factors, taking into consideration the factors that predispose women to high-risk fertility behaviours.

Association between gender-based violence and hypertension among women in the Kyrgyzstan Republic.

BACKGROUND: Gender-based violence (GBV) is a significant global public health problem and the most prominent human rights violation severely impacting women's health and wellbeing. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the association between gender-based violence and hypertension in Kyrgyzstan Republic. METHODS: This study was conducted using population-based data of women from the 2018 Kyrgyzstan Demographic and Health Survey. The odds ratio was calculated to measure the association between GBV and hypertension, and p-values < 0.005 was considered statistically significant. RESULT: We included data of 4793 participants, and 621 (13%) of them had hypertension. Participants exposed to GBV were 24% more likely to have hypertension than unexposed participants (OR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.03-1.48). Of all women with hypertension, 206 (33.0%) were exposed to GBV. Participants with secondary education or higher exposed to GBV were 24% more likely to be hypertensive than GBV unexposed women with the same education levels OR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.04-1.49). Unemployed participants exposed to GBV were 45% more likely to develop hypertension than their unexposed counterparts (OR = 1.45, 95%CI: 1.15-1.81). Rural residents exposed to GBV were also 29% more likely to have hypertension than those unexposed to GBV (OR = 1.29, 95% CI: 1.04-1.59). The odds of hypertension among those exposed to GBV increase with age. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that GBV is a significant factor of having hypertension among Kyrgyz women.

Variation in financial protection and its association with health expenditure indicators: an analysis of low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: An insight into variation in financial protection among countries and the underpinning factors associated with the variations observed will help to inform public health policy and practice. METHOD: Secondary datasets from Global Health Expenditure Database and World Bank Development Indicators collected between 2000 and 2016 were used. Financial protection was measured in 75 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) using the sustainable development goals framework. Funnel plot charts were used to explore the variation, and regression models were used to measure associations. RESULT: Fifty-three (67%) countries were within the 99% control limits indicating common-cause variation; 11 countries were above the upper control limit and 15 countries were below the lower control limit. In the fully adjusted model, country, spending on health relative to their economy had the strongest association with the variation in catastrophic spending. Every 1% increase in health spending relative to gross domestic product (GDP) was found to be associated with a reduction of 0.13% in the number of people that incurred catastrophic health spending. CONCLUSION: There is substantial variation in financial protection, as measured by the number of people that incurred catastrophic health spending, in LMICs; a proportion of this could be explained by the difference in GDP and external health expenditure.

Equity of national publicly funded health insurance schemes under the universal health coverage agenda: a systematic review of studies conducted in Africa.

BACKGROUND: The implementation of publicly funded health insurance schemes (PFHIS) is the major strategy to drive progress and achievement of universal health coverage (UHC) by 2030. We appraised evidence on the equity of insurance schemes across Africa. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of published studies that assessed equity in health insurance schemes implemented under the UHC agenda in Africa. Seven databases, Web of Science, Medline, CINAHL, Scopus, Cochrane Library, EMBASE and World Bank eLibrary, were searched; we operationalized the PROGRESS-Plus (place of residence; race/ethnicity/culture/language; occupation; gender/sex religion; education; socioeconomic status; social capital) equity framework to assess equity areas. RESULTS: Forty-five studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the study, in which 90% assessed equity by socioeconomic status. Evidence showed that rural residents, those self-employed or working in the informal sector, men, those with lower educational attainment, and the poor were less likely to be covered by health insurance schemes. Broadly, the insurance schemes, especially, community-based health insurance (CBI) schemes improved utilization by disadvantaged groups, however, the same groups were less likely to benefit from health services. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence on equity of PFHIS is mixed, however, CBI schemes seem to offer more equitable coverage and utilization of essential health services in Africa.

Women's empowerment and female genital mutilation intention for daughters in Sierra Leone: a multilevel analysis.

BACKGROUND: Female genital mutilation is common in Sierra Leone. Evidence indicates that empowering women provides protective benefits against female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C). Yet, the relationship between women's empowerment and their intention to cut their daughters has not been explored in Sierra Leone. The aim of this study was to assess the association between women's empowerment and their intention to have their daughters undergo FGM/C in the country. METHODS: Data for this study are from the 2013 Sierra Leone Demographic and Health Survey. A total of 7,706 women between the ages of 15 and 49 were included in the analysis. Analysis entailed generation of descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages), and estimation of multi-level logistic regression models to examine the association between women's empowerment, contextual factors and their intentions to cut their daughters. RESULTS: A significantly higher proportion of women who participated in labour force reported that they intended to cut their daughters compared to those who did not (91.2%, CI = 90.4-91.9 and 86.0%, CI = 84.1-87.8, respectively). Similarly, the proportion intending to cut their daughters was significantly higher among women who accepted wife beating than among those who rejected the practice (94.9%, CI = 93.8-95.8 and 86.4% CI = 84.9-87.8, respectively). A significantly higher proportion of women with low decision-making power intended to cut their daughters compared to those with high decision-making power (91.0%, CI = 89.0-92.8 and 85.0% CI = 82.2-87.4, respectively). Results from multivariate regression analysis showed that the odds of intending to cut daughters were significantly higher among women who participated in labour force (aOR = 2.5, CI = 1.3-4.7) and those who accepted wife beating than among those who did not (aOR = 2.7, CI = 1.7-4.5). In contrast, the likelihood of intending to cut daughters was significantly lower among women with high than low knowledge (aOR = 0.4, CI = 0.3-0.7), and among those aged 45-49  than among those aged 15-19  (aOR = 0.2, CI = 0.0-0.6). CONCLUSION: The findings underscore the need to align anti-FGM/C policies and programmes to women who have undergone FGM/C, those with low knowledge, women who support wife beating and young women. Such interventions could highlight the adverse implications of the practice by stressing the psychological, health and social implications of FGM/C on its survivors.

Influence of contextual socioeconomic position on hypertension risk in low- and middle-income countries: disentangling context from composition.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension has emerged as the single most significant modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease and death worldwide. Resource-limited settings are currently experiencing the epidemiological transition from infectious diseases to chronic non-communicable diseases, primarily due to modifications in diet and lifestyle behaviour. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of individual-, community- and country-level factors associated with hypertension in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: Multivariable multi-level logistic regression analysis was applied using 12 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) datasets collected between 2011 and 2018 in LMICs. We included 888,925 respondents (Level 1) nested within 33,883 neighbourhoods (Level 2) from 12 LMICs (Level 3). RESULTS: The prevalence of hypertension ranged from 10.3% in the Kyrgyz Republic to 52.2% in Haiti. After adjusting for the individual-, neighbourhood- and country-level factors, we found respondents living in the least deprived areas were 14% more likely to have hypertension than those from the most deprived areas (OR = 1.14, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.17). We observed a significant variation in the odds of hypertension across the countries and the neighbourhoods. Approximately 26.3 and 47.6% of the variance in the odds of hypertension could be attributed to country- and neighbourhood-level factors, respectively. We also observed that respondents moving to a different neighbourhood or country with a higher risk of hypertension had an increased chance of developing hypertension, the median increase in their odds of hypertension was 2.83-fold (95% CI 2.62 to 3.07) and 4.04- fold (95% CI 3.98 to 4.08), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed that individual compositional and contextual measures of socioeconomic status were independently associated with the risk of developing hypertension. Therefore, prevention strategies should be implemented at the individual level and the socioeconomic and contextual levels to reduce the burden of hypertension.

Anaemia among under-five children: Is maternal marriage at 18th birthday and above protective? Evidence from 15 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Prevalence of child marriage has remained high in many parts of Africa despite its multisectoral adverse effect. As it is now being suggested to have intergeneration impact, we examined if marriage at or after 18th birthday is associated with the risk of anaemia among under-five children. Cross-sectional data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted between 2010 and 2018 in 15 African countries as of August 2020 were used. Maternal age of marriage was defined as when they started living with their husband or partner. Children with haemoglobin level below 11.0 g/dl after adjustment for altitude were categorised to be anaemic. The study involved a multivariable logistic regression analysis of 17,033 children data born by women between the childbearing ages. About 65% of under-five children in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) were anaemic, ranging from 40% in Rwanda to 82% in Mali. Girl child marriage ranged from 40% in South Africa to 97% in Niger with an average of about 60%. We observed a significant reduction (20%) in the risk of anaemia among under-five children when their mothers married after at or after their 18th birthday. Country-specific analysis showed that increased risk of anaemia was strongly associated with early marriage in Côte d'Ivoire and Mozambique. This study contributed to the growing evidence that maternal age of marriage might have an intergenerational impact. Maternal marriage at or after their 18th birthday reduces the risk of anaemia among under-five children in Africa. Interventions aimed at tackling anaemia in Africa should capture and affect household socioeconomic risks and children's exposures.

Predictors of women's utilization of primary health care for skilled pregnancy care in rural Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Although Primary Health Care (PHC) was designed to provide universal access to skilled pregnancy care for the prevention of maternal deaths, very little is known of the factors that predict the use of PHC for skilled maternity care in rural parts of Nigeria - where its use is likely to have a greater positive impact on maternal health care. The objective of this study was to identify the factors that lead pregnant women to use or not use existing primary health care facilities for antenatal and delivery care. METHODS: The study was a cross-sectional community-based study conducted in Esan South East and Etsako East LGAs of Edo State, Nigeria. A total of 1408 randomly selected women of reproductive age were interviewed in their households using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed with descriptive and multivariate statistical methods. RESULTS: The results showed antenatal care attendance rate by currently pregnant women of 62.1%, and a skilled delivery of 46.6% by recently delivered women at PHCs, while 25% of women delivered at home or with traditional birth attendants. Reasons for use and non-use of PHCs for antenatal and delivery care given by women were related to perceptions about long distances to PHCs, high costs of services and poor quality of PHC service delivery. Chi-square test of association revealed that level of education and marital status were significantly related to use of PHCs for antenatal care. The results of logistic regression for delivery care showed that women with primary (OR 3.10, CI 1.16-8.28) and secondary (OR 2.37, CI 1.19-4.71) levels education were more likely to receive delivery care in PHCs than the highly educated. Being a Muslim (OR 1.56, CI 1.00-2.42), having a partner who is employed in Estako East (OR 2.78, CI 1.04-7.44) and having more than five children in Esan South East (OR 2.00, CI 1.19-3.35) significantly increased the odds of delivery in PHCs. The likelihood of using a PHC facility was less for women who had more autonomy (OR 0.75, CI 0.57-0.99) as compared to women with higher autonomy. CONCLUSION: We conclude that efforts devoted to addressing the limiting factors (distance, costs and quality of care) using creative and innovative approaches will increase the utilization of skilled pregnancy care in PHCs and reduce maternal mortality in rural Nigeria.

Quantifying the increased risk of illness in malnourished children: a global meta-analysis and propensity score matching approach.

BACKGROUND: Childhood morbidity and mortality continue to be major public health challenges. Malnutrition increases the risk of morbidity and mortality from illnesses such as acute respiratory infections, diarrhoea, fever, and perinatal conditions in children. This study explored and estimated the magnitude of the associations between childhood malnutrition forms and child morbidity. METHODS: We performed an individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis and employed propensity score matching to examine crude (unadjusted) and adjusted associations. Our analysis utilized demographic and health datasets from surveys conducted between 2015 and 2020 in 27 low- and middle-income countries. Our objective was to quantify the risk of morbidity in malnourished children and estimate the population-attributable fraction (PAF) using a natural experimental design with a propensity score-matched cohort. RESULTS: The IPD meta-analysis of child morbidity across three childhood malnutrition forms presented nuanced results. Children with double-burden malnutrition had a 5% greater risk of morbidity, which was not statistically significant. In contrast, wasted children had a 28% greater risk of morbidity. Overweight children exhibited a 29% lower risk of morbidity. Using the matched sample, children with double-burden malnutrition and overweight children had lower morbidity risks (1.7%, RR: 0.983 (95% CI, 0.95 to 1.02) and 20%, RR: 0.80 (95% CI, 0.76 to 0.85), respectively), while wasting was associated with a 1.1 times (RR: 1.094 (95% CI, 1.05 to 1.14)) greater risk of morbidity. Eliminating double-burden malnutrition and wasting in the four and seven countries with significant positive risk differences could reduce the child morbidity burden by an estimated average of 2.8% and 3.7%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed a correlation between specific childhood malnutrition subtypes-double-burden malnutrition and wasting-and increased risks of morbidity. Conversely, overweight children exhibited a lower risk of immediate morbidity, yet they may face potential long-term health challenges, indicating the necessity for nuanced approaches to childhood nutrition.

Navigating the nutritional paradox: The impact of sustainable development targets on childhood wasting and overweight prevalence.

In 2015, the United Nations member states endorsed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development to chart a path towards a better future for all. Childhood malnutrition, particularly wasting, remains a critical global health challenge, disproportionately affecting children under five in low- and middle-income countries. This study evaluates the impact of achieving selected Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets on reducing childhood malnutrition, with a specific focus on wasting and overweight. Utilizing multi-country DHS datasets, this study analyzed data from 138,782 children under five across 27 countries, nested within 13,788 neighborhoods. We simulated the predicted prevalence of wasting and overweight as selected SDG-related health inputs and determinant indicators reached their target values. Our findings reveal a baseline prevalence of 6.3% for wasting and 4.3% for overweight among the children studied. Progress towards the SDGs can potentially decrease wasting prevalence by a quarter (25%), translating to a reduction from 6.3% to 4.7%. This significant reduction in wasting is more pronounced in rural areas (29%) than in urban settings (7%). Conversely, a 14% increase in overweight prevalence was observed, with rural areas experiencing a higher rise (15%) than urban areas (13%). The study also highlighted variations in access to safe sanitation, improved water sources, healthcare services, income, maternal employment, and education levels, underscoring the complex interplay between these factors and malnutrition outcomes. Notably, the reduction in wasting prevalence was mainly attributable to input determinants rather than direct health inputs, suggesting the importance of broader socioeconomic factors in combating malnutrition. Achieving SDG targets presents a significant opportunity to mitigate wasting, particularly in rural communities. However, the uneven distribution of improvements underscores the need for targeted interventions in less affected areas. The concurrent rise in overweight prevalence, points to the emerging challenge of addressing the dual burden of malnutrition. This necessitates integrated, multi-sectoral strategies considering the diverse health determinants and nutritional status.

A multilevel analysis of the determinants of HIV testing among men in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys across 10 African countries.

Sub-Saharan Africa, the epicenter of the HIV epidemic, has seen significant reductions in new infections over the last decade. Although most new infections have been reported among women, particularly adolescent girls, men are still disadvantaged in accessing HIV testing, care, and treatment services. Globally, men have relatively poorer HIV testing, care, and treatment indices when compared with women. Gender norms and the associated concept of masculinity, strength, and stereotypes have been highlighted as hindering men's acceptance of HIV counseling and testing. Therefore, men's suboptimal uptake of HIV testing services will continue limiting efforts to achieve HIV epidemic control. Thus, this study aimed to identify individual, neighborhood, and country-level determinants of sub-optimal HIV testing among men in Sub-Saharan African countries. We analyzed demographic and health datasets from surveys conducted between 2016 and 2020 in Sub-Saharan African Countries. We conducted multivariable multilevel regression analysis on 52,641 men aged 15-49 years resident in 4,587 clusters across 10 countries. The primary outcome variable was ever tested for HIV. HIV testing services uptake among men in these ten Sub-Saharan African countries was 35.1%, with a high of 65.5% in Rwanda to a low of 10.2% in Guinea. HIV testing services uptake was more likely in men with increasing age, some form of formal education, in employment, ever married, and residents in relatively wealthier households. We also found that men who possessed health insurance, had some form of weekly media exposure, and had accessed the internet were more likely to have ever received an HIV test. Unlike those noted to be less likely to have ever received an HIV test if they had discriminatory attitudes towards HIV, comprehensive HIV knowledge, recent sexual activity, and risky sexual behavior were positive predictors of HIV testing services uptake among men. Furthermore, men in communities with high rurality and illiteracy were less likely to receive an HIV test. Individual and community-level factors influence the uptake of HIV testing among Sub-Saharan African men. There was evidence of geographical clustering in HIV testing uptake among men at the community level, with about two-thirds of the variability attributable to community-level factors. Therefore, HIV testing programs will need to design interventions that ensure equal access to HIV testing services informed by neighborhood socioeconomic conditions, peculiarities, and contexts.

Assessing Africa's child survival gains and prospects for attaining SDG target on child mortality.

This study assessed Africa's child survival gains and prospects for attaining Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) target 3.2. We analysed multiple country-level secondary datasets of 54 African countries and presented spatial analysis. Results showed that only 8 out of the 54 African countries have achieved substantial reductions in under-5 mortality with an under-five mortality rate (U5MR) of 25 deaths per 1,000 live births or less. Many countries are far from achieving this target. Results of the predictions using supervised machine learning on the Bayesian network reveal that the probability of achieving the SDG target 3.2 (i.e., having U5MR of 25 deaths per 1000 live births or less) increases (from 21.6% to 100%) when the contraceptive prevalence increases from 49.8% to 78.5%; and the use of skilled birth attendants increases from 44.8% to 86.3%; and percentage of secondary school completion of female increases from 42.5 to 74.0%. Our results from Local indicator of spatial autocorrelation (LISA) cluster maps show that 7 countries (mainly in West/Central Africa) formed the high-high clusters (hotspots for U5M) and may not achieve the SDG target 3.2 unless urgent and appropriate investments are deployed. As 2030 approaches, there is a need to address the problem of limited access to quality health care, female illiteracy, limited access to safe water, and poor access to quality family planning services, particularly across many sub-Saharan African countries.

Interventions for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: umbrella review of systematic reviews.

Background: Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death globally. The aim of this overview of systematic reviews was to compare the effectiveness of different pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Methods: A structured search of the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects archive was conducted to find systematic reviews that reported the effect of various pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease from inception to March 2021. References of included studies were also checked. The included systematic reviews' methodological quality was assessed using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews 2 instrument (range, 0-16). The outcomes of each included review's meta-analysis were extracted and described narratively. Results: This study analysed 95 systematic reviews, including 41 on non-pharmacological interventions and 54 on pharmacological interventions for cardiovascular health. The majority of the reviews focused on lipid-lowering interventions (n = 25) and antiplatelet medications (n = 21), followed by nutritional supplements, dietary interventions, physical activity, health promotion and other interventions. Only 1 of the 10 reviews addressing cardiovascular mortality showed a potential benefit, while the others found no effect. Antiplatelets were found to have a beneficial effect on all-cause mortality in 2 out of 12 meta-analyses and on major cardiovascular disease events in 8 out of 17 reviews. Lipid-lowering interventions showed beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease mortality, all-cause mortality and major cardiovascular disease events in varying numbers of the reviews. Glucose-lowering medications demonstrated significant benefits for major cardiovascular events, coronary heart disease events and mortality. However, the combination of dietary interventions, physical activities, nutritional supplements and polypills showed little or no significant benefit for major cardiovascular outcomes or mortality. Future work and limitations: More research is needed to determine whether the effect of treatment varies depending on population characteristics. The findings of this review should be interpreted with caution because the majority of studies of non-pharmacological interventions compare primary prevention with usual care, which may include recommended pharmacological treatment in higher-risk patients (e.g. statins and/or antihypertensive medications, etc.). In addition, randomised controlled trial evidence may be better suited to the study of pharmacological interventions than dietary and lifestyle interventions. Conclusions: This umbrella review captured the variability in different interventions on randomised controlled trial evidence on interventions for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and identified areas that may benefit from further research. Specifically, this review focused on randomised controlled trial evidence on interventions for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Researchers may use these findings as a resource to direct new intervention studies and network meta-analyses to compare the efficacy of various interventions based on these findings. Funding: This article presents independent research funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment (HTA) programme as award number 17/148/05.

Heart and blood vessel diseases are the top cause of death worldwide. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of various drug-based and non-drug-based methods in preventing these diseases. We searched databases like Cochrane, MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects archive to find reviews about different ways to prevent heart and blood vessel diseases up until March 2021. The results showed that only 1 out of 10 reviews found a possible benefit in reducing heart-related deaths, while the other 9 found no effect. Medicines that lower blood sugar levels had a positive impact on reducing major heart events, heart disease and death. However, combining dietary changes, exercise, nutritional supplements and polypills had little or no effect on reducing heart-related events, deaths due to heart disease or deaths from all causes. This review examined the available evidence on ways to prevent heart and blood vessel diseases and identified areas where more research could be beneficial. Future studies could compare the effectiveness of different interventions using new methods and analyses.

Assessment of Depressive Symptoms and Sociodemographic Correlates of Adult Patients Attending a National Health Insurance Clinic at a Tertiary Hospital, Southwest Nigeria.

Background: Depression affects individuals across all age groups, genders, and socio-economic backgrounds. Socio-demographic correlates of depression may include factors such as age, gender, education level, income, and marital status. These factors, including the presence of chronic diseases, have been shown to impact the prevalence and severity of depression. This study assessed the prevalence of depressive symptoms and its association with socio-demographic correlates and co-morbid chronic medical conditions among adult patients attending a National Health Insurance Clinic of a tertiary health facility in Southwest Nigeria. Methodology: A hospital-based descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted between April - May 2023 in which 250 consenting adult patients were recruited using a systematic random sampling technique. Respondents' information on socio-demographic profiles and awareness of co-morbid medical conditions were assessed using semi-structured interviewer-administered questionnaires. Depressive symptoms were determined using the Patient Health Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 20. The strength of the association between independent and dependent variables was measured using chi-square and the p-value was set as <0.05. Results: The mean age of respondents was 38.96±13.096 years (range: 18-80 years). There were 159 (63.6%) females. The prevalence of depressive symptoms was 44.8%. There was a statistically significant association between age, gender, marital status, monthly income, presence of chronic diseases, and depressive symptoms. Conclusion: The prevalence of depressive symptoms among adult patients attending the National health insurance clinic was 44.8%. These findings call for health policies to integrate and strengthen mental health in NHIA primary care.

Susceptibility and infectiousness of SARS-CoV-2 in children versus adults, by variant (wild-type, alpha, delta): A systematic review and meta-analysis of household contact studies.

IMPORTANCE: Understanding the susceptibility and infectiousness of children and adolescents in comparison to adults is important to appreciate their role in the COVID-19 pandemic. OBJECTIVE: To determine SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility and infectiousness of children and adolescents with adults as comparator for three variants (wild-type, alpha, delta) in the household setting. We aimed to identify the effects independent of vaccination or prior infection. DATA SOURCES: We searched EMBASE, PubMed and medRxiv up to January 2022. STUDY SELECTION: Two reviewers independently identified studies providing secondary household attack rates (SAR) for SARS-CoV-2 infection in children (0-9 years), adolescents (10-19 years) or both compared with adults (20 years and older). DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Two reviewers independently extracted data, assessed risk of bias and performed a random-effects meta-analysis model. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Odds ratio (OR) for SARS-CoV-2 infection comparing children and adolescents with adults stratified by wild-type (ancestral type), alpha, and delta variant, respectively. Susceptibility was defined as the secondary attack rate (SAR) among susceptible household contacts irrespective of the age of the index case. Infectiousness was defined as the SAR irrespective of the age of household contacts when children/adolescents/adults were the index case. RESULTS: Susceptibility analysis: We included 27 studies (308,681 contacts), for delta only one (large) study was available. Compared to adults, children and adolescents were less susceptible to the wild-type and delta, but equally susceptible to alpha. Infectiousness analysis: We included 21 studies (201,199 index cases). Compared to adults, children and adolescents were less infectious when infected with the wild-type and delta. Alpha -related infectiousness remained unclear, 0-9 year old children were at least as infectious as adults. Overall SAR among household contacts varied between the variants. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: When considering the potential role of children and adolescents, variant-specific susceptibility, infectiousness, age group and overall transmissibility need to be assessed.

Socioeconomic Macro-Level Determinants of Hypertension: Ecological Analysis of 138 Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

AIM: To assess the relative importance of major socioeconomic determinants of population health on the burden of hypertension in Low-and-Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). METHODS: Country-level data from 138 countries based on World Development Indicators 2020 were used for correlation and linear regression analyses of eight socioeconomic predictors of hypertension: current health expenditure, domestic general government health expenditure per capita, GDP per capita, adult literacy rate, unemployment rate, urban population, multidimensional poverty index, and total population. RESULTS: The median prevalence of age-standardised hypertension was 25.8% across the 138 countries, ranging from 13.7% in Peru to 33.4% in Niger. For every 10% increase in the unemployment rate, the prevalence of hypertension increased by 2.70%. For every 10% increase in the percentage of people living in urban areas, hypertension was reduced by 0.63%. CONCLUSIONS: The findings revealed that countries with high GDP, more investment in health and an improved multidimensional poverty index have a lower prevalence of hypertension.