Best practices for iatrogenic anaemia prevention in the intensive care unit: Blood-sparing techniques.

Anaemia is a common issue in patients who are admitted to intensive care units and worsens their condition throughout the stay due to the extraction of blood for diagnostic purposes. It is also well-known that an important amount of the carbon dioxide produced by health services is likely attributable to blood donation, testing and manufacture, storage or distribution of blood components. This must be taken into account to perform nursing interventions consistent with the idea of sustainable health care. In this regard, within patient blood management bundles, with the objective of minimizing the use of blood products, it is recommended to use blood-sparing techniques: small volume tubes (SVT) or closed-blood sampling devices (CBSD). Published studies before 2014 (excepting two more recent ones) have shown that by themselves, both techniques reduce drawn volume but do not decrease haemoglobin reduction and/or need of transfusion. Given the lack of cost-effectiveness studies, it may be easier to implement the use of CBSD as it does not require prior consensus on the discard volume or adaptations in the processing of laboratory tests, as is the case with SVT.

Pain Behaviors Analyzed by Videorecording in Brain-Injured Patients Admitted to the Intensive Care Unit.

AIM: To describe and classify pain behaviors (facial and body) in brain-injured patients with a low level of consciousness before, during, and after the performance of painful and non-painful care procedures. METHODS: Facial behaviors and body movements in brain-injured patients were videotaped at rest, during the application of three care procedures (two painful and one non-painful), and 15 minutes after completion of these procedures. Each video recording was evaluated by expert evaluators blinded to each other. For each of the behaviors observed, all possible combinations between the three procedures and/or time were compared using the McNemar test. Effect size was measured by the difference in proportions using the Wilson score 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Twenty-seven patients were included. The mean (standard deviation) Glasgow Coma Score was 5.4 (1.9). A total of 33 behaviors (29 active, four neutral) were registered. Expression of behaviors was more common during the painful procedures compared with the other time points (non-painful procedures, baseline, and final evaluation). Inter-evaluator agreement was substantial (Kappa index >0.7) in more than 50% of the observed behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: In this study involving brain-injured patients with a low level of consciousness, facial, body, and ventilation-related behaviors were more common during painful procedures. Agreement between evaluators to detect the presence or absence of these behaviors was substantial. These findings underscore the need to develop pain assessment measures specific to this patient population.

The impact of ABCDE bundle implementation on patient outcomes: A nationwide cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The ABCDE bundle is a set of evidence-based practices to systematically reduce the risks of sedation, delirium, and immobility in intensive care patients. Implementing the bundle improves clinical outcome. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between patient outcomes and compliance with bundle components ABC (analgosedation algorithms), D (delirium protocol), and E (early mobilization protocol). DESIGN: A Spanish multicentre cohort study of adult patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) for ≥48 h until extubation. METHODS: The primary outcome was pain level, cooperation to permit Medical Research Council Scale administration, patient days of delirium, and mobility. The secondary outcome was cumulative drug dosing by IMV days. Tertiary outcomes (ICU days, IMV days, bed rest days, ICU mortality, ICUAW) and independent variables (analgosedation, delirium, early mobilization protocols) were also studied. RESULTS: Data were collected from 605 patients in 80 ICUs and 5214 patient days with IMV. Two-thirds of the ICUs studied applied no protocols. Pain was not assessed on 83.6% of patient days. Patient cooperation made scale administration feasible on 20.7% of days. Delirium and immobility were found on 4.2% and 69.9% of days, respectively. Patients had shorter stays in ICUs with bundle protocols and fewer days of IMV in ICUs with delirium and mobilization bundle components (P = 0.006 and P = 0.03, respectively). Analgosedation protocols were associated with more opioid dosing (P = 0.02), and delirium and early mobilization protocols with more propofol (P = 0.001), dexmedetomidine (P = 0.001), and lower benzodiazepine dosing (P = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: The implementation rate of ABCDE bundle components was very low in our Spanish setting, but when implemented, patients had a shorter ICU stay, more analgesia dosing, and lighter sedation. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Applying some but not all the bundle components, there is increased analgesia and light sedation drug use, decreased benzodiazepines, and increased patient cooperation and mobility, resulting in a shorter ICU stay and fewer days of IMV.

Variables associated with mobility levels in critically ill patients: A cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Early mobilization in the intensive care unit (ICU) helps improve patients' functional status at discharge. However, many barriers hinder this practice. AIM AND OBJECTIVES: To identify mobility levels acquired by critically ill patients and their variables. DESIGN: A multi-centre cohort study was conducted in adult patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours. METHODS: The primary outcome was level of mobility according to the ICU mobility scale. The secondary outcome was human resource availability and existence of ABCDEF bundle guidelines. A logistic regression was performed, based on days 3 to 5 of the ICU stay and significant association with active mobility. RESULTS: Six hundred and forty-two patients were included from 80 ICUs. Active moving in and out of bed was found on 9.9% of patient-days from day 8 of the ICU stay. Bed exercises, or passive transfers, and immobility were observed on 45.6% and 42.2% of patient-days, respectively. Patients achieving active mobility (189/642, 29.4%) were in ICUs with more physiotherapist hours. Active mobility was more likely with a 1:4 nurse-patient ratio (odds ratio [OR] 3.7 95% confidence interval [CI] [1.2-11.2]), high MRC sum-score (OR 1.05 95% CI [1.04-1.06]) and presence of delirium (OR 1.01 95% CI [1.00-1.02]). By contrast, active mobility was hindered by higher BMI (OR 0.92 95% CI [0.88-0.97]), a 1:3 nurse-patient ratio (OR 0.54 95% CI [0.32-0.93]), or a shift-dependent nurse-patient ratio (OR 0.27 95% CI [0.12-0.62]). CONCLUSIONS: Immobility and passive mobilization were prevalent. A high MRC sum-score and presence of delirium are protective factors of mobilization. A 1:4 nurse-patient ratio shows a stronger association with active mobility than a 1:3 ratio. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Severity-criteria-based nurse-patient ratios hinder mobilization. Active mobilization may be enhanced by using nursing-intervention-based ratios, increasing physiotherapist hours, and achieving wider application of the ABCDEF bundle, resulting in more awake, cooperative patients.

Application of the Behavioural Indicators of Pain Scale in patients with traumatic brain injury.

AIM: To develop and psychometrically test the Behavioural Indicators of Pain Scale (ESCID) in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). DESIGN: A prospective observational study to test the psychometric properties of the Behavioural Indicators of Pain Scale in patients with TBI. METHOD: A convenience sample of patients with TBI, who were non-communicative and using invasive mechanical ventilation was selected. Pain was evaluated by two observers who were blinded from each other. Assessments were performed at baseline via the performance of a painful procedure (aspiration of secretions) and a non-painful procedure (rubbing with a gauze). Assessments were repeated after application of procedures on days 1 and 6 of hospitalization in an intensive care unit. Data were collected between January-December 2016. RESULTS: About 134 patients were included in the study. Of these, 76.1% were men. The mean age of participants was 45.2 (SD 17.5) years. The pain score significantly increased during the painful procedure when compared with the baseline measure and non-painful procedure (p < .001). Patients displayed a greater number of pain-indicating behaviours during the painful procedure on day 6, compared with day 1 (p < .05). This finding coincided with a reduced level of sedation and a greater level of consciousness. CONCLUSION: The ESCID scale detects pain behaviours and discriminates among the different types of stimulation in patients with brain injury, who are uncommunicative and with mechanical ventilation, with good reliability. The ability for patients with brain injury to express behaviours is limited because of the low level of consciousness and the deep level of sedation. IMPACT: This research will have an impact on the practice of pain assessment in patients with brain injury, representing a first step to adapt the content of the ESCID.

Development and initial validation of a Theory of Planned Behaviour questionnaire to assess critical care nurses' intention to use physical restraints.

AIMS: To develop and psychometrically test a Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) questionnaire to assess nurses' intention to use physical restraints (PRs) in intubated patients. DESIGN: A psychometric instrument validation study conducted in three phases. METHODS: A theory-driven questionnaire was developed. Eight experts validated the content of the preliminary 58-item questionnaire. A pilot study was conducted including 101 critical care nurses to test the reliability of the items. Construct validity and reliability were tested in a cross-sectional study of 12 units from eight hospitals in Spain (N = 354) from October - December 2017. Participants completed the questions based on the TPB, and socio-demographic and professional variables. RESULTS: The instrument comprised 48 items. All the direct and indirect constructs exhibited acceptable reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated satisfactory fit indices for factorial structure according to the TPB. Nurses showed favourable attitudes, low perception of social pressure and modest perception of behaviour control. Perceived behavioural control and attitude were moderately positively correlated with the intention to use restraints, whereas subjective norm revealed the lowest correlation. Overall, the model explained 33% of the variance in intention. CONCLUSIONS: The Physical Restraint TPB questionnaire is a 48-item self-reporting theoretically based instrument with acceptable reliability and construct validity to identify nurses' intentions to use PRs in intubated patients. IMPACT: Unravelling the key determinants of nurses' intentions to use PRs should be examined to tailor quality improvement projects aimed at de-implementing restraints use in practice and to promote safer care.

Prevention of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: The Multimodal Approach of the Spanish ICU "Pneumonia Zero" Program.

OBJECTIVES: The "Pneumonia Zero" project is a nationwide multimodal intervention based on the simultaneous implementation of a comprehensive evidence-based bundle measures to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients admitted to the ICU. DESIGN: Prospective, interventional, and multicenter study. SETTING: A total of 181 ICUs throughout Spain. PATIENTS: All patients admitted for more than 24 hours to the participating ICUs between April 1, 2011, and December 31, 2012. INTERVENTION: Ten ventilator-associated pneumonia prevention measures were implemented (seven were mandatory and three highly recommended). The database of the National ICU-Acquired Infections Surveillance Study (Estudio Nacional de Vigilancia de Infecciones Nosocomiales [ENVIN]) was used for data collection. Ventilator-associated pneumonia rate was expressed as incidence density per 1,000 ventilator days. Ventilator-associated pneumonia rates from the incorporation of the ICUs to the project, every 3 months, were compared with data of the ENVIN registry (April-June 2010) as the baseline period. Ventilator-associated pneumonia rates were adjusted by characteristics of the hospital, including size, type (public or private), and teaching (postgraduate) or university-affiliated (undergraduate) status. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The 181 participating ICUs accounted for 75% of all ICUs in Spain. In a total of 171,237 ICU admissions, an artificial airway was present on 505,802 days (50.0% of days of stay in the ICU). A total of 3,474 ventilator-associated pneumonia episodes were diagnosed in 3,186 patients. The adjusted ventilator-associated pneumonia incidence density rate decreased from 9.83 (95% CI, 8.42-11.48) per 1,000 ventilator days in the baseline period to 4.34 (95% CI, 3.22-5.84) after 19-21 months of participation. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of the bundle measures included in the "Pneumonia Zero" project resulted in a significant reduction of more than 50% of the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in Spanish ICUs. This reduction was sustained 21 months after implementation.

Enteral nutrition management in critically ill adult patients and its relationship with intensive care unit-acquired muscle weakness: A national cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the incidence and determinants of ICU-acquired muscle weakness (ICUAW) in adult patients with enteral nutrition (EN) during the first 7 days in the ICU and mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours. METHODS: A prospective, nationwide, multicentre cohort study in a national ICU network of 80 ICUs. ICU patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours and EN the first 7 days of their ICU stay were included. The primary outcome was incidence of ICUAW. The secondary outcome was analysed, during days 3-7 of ICU stay, the relationship between demographic and clinical data to contribute to the onset of ICUAW, identify whether energy and protein intake can contribute independently to the onset of ICUAW and degree of compliance guidelines for EN. RESULTS: 319 patients were studied from 69 ICUs in our country. The incidence of ICUAW was 153/222 (68.9%; 95% CI [62.5%-74.7%]). Patients without ICUAW showed higher levels of active mobility (p = 0.018). The logistic regression analysis showed no effect on energy or protein intake on the onset of ICUAW. Overfeeding was observed on a significant proportion of patient-days, while more overfeeding (as per US guidelines) was found among patients with obesity than those without (42.9% vs 12.5%; p<0.001). Protein intake was deficient (as per US/European guidelines) during ICU days 3-7. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of ICUAW was high in this patient cohort. Early mobility was associated with a lower incidence of ICUAW. Significant overfeeding and deficient protein intake were observed. However, energy and protein intake alone were insufficient to explain ICUAW onset. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Low mobility, high incidence of ICUAW and low protein intake suggest the need to train, update and involve ICU professionals in nutritional care and the need for early mobilization of ICU patients.

Cross-cultural adaptation of the FRAIL scale for critically ill patients in Spain.

AIM: To translate and culturally adapt the FRAIL scale into Spanish and perform a preliminary test of diagnostic accuracy in patients admitted to intensive care units. DESIGN: Cross-sectional diagnostic study. METHODS: Five intensive care units (ICU) in Spain were participated. Stage 1: Three native Spanish-speaking bilingual translators familiar with the field of critical care translated the scale from English into Spanish. Stage 2: Three native English-speaking bilingual translators familiar with critical care medicine. Stage 3: Authors of the original scale compared the English original and back-translated versions of the scale. Stage 4: Five nurses with more than 5 years of ICU experience and five critical care physicians assessed the comprehension and relevance of each of the items of the Spanish version in 30 patients of 3 different age ranges (<50, 50-65 and >65 years). RESULTS: The FRAIL scale was translated and adapted cross-culturally for patients admitted to intensive care units in Spain. The process consisted of four stages: translation, back translation, comparison and pilot test. There was good correspondence between the original scale and the Spanish version in 100% of the items. The participating patients assessed the relevance (content validity) and comprehensibility (face validity) of each of the items of the first Spanish version. The relevance of some of the items scored low when the scale was used in patients younger than 65 years. CONCLUSIONS: We have cross-culturally adapted the FRAIL scale, originally in English, to Spanish for its use in the critical care medical setting in Spanish-speaking countries. IMPLICATIONS FOR PROFESSIONALS: Physicians and nurses can apply the new scale to all patients admitted to the intensive care units. Nursing care can be adapted according to frailty, trying to reduce the side effects of admission to these units for the most fragile patients. REPORTING METHOD: The manuscript's authors have adhered to the EQUATOR guidelines, using the COSMIN reporting guideline for studies on the measurement properties of patient-reported outcome measures. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: In a pilot clinical study, we applied the first version of the FRAIL-Spain scale to intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Five nurses with more than 5 years of ICU experience and five critical care physicians assessed the relevance (content validity) and comprehensibility (face validity) of the five items of the first Spanish version. Relevance was assessed using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (no relevance) to 4 (high relevance), and comprehensibility was assessed as poor, acceptable or good. Each health professional applied the scale to three patients (total number of patients = 30) of three different age ranges (<50, 50-65 and >65 years) and recorded the time of application of the scale to each patient. Although the frailty scales were initially created by geriatricians to be applied to the elders, there is little experience with their application in critically ill patients of any age. Therefore, more information is needed to determine the relevance of using this scale in critical care patients. In this pilot study, we considered that nurses and critical care physicians should evaluate frailty using this adapted scale in adult patients admitted to the Intensive Care Units.

Delirium epidemiology in critical care (DECCA): an international study.

INTRODUCTION: Delirium is a frequent source of morbidity in intensive care units (ICUs). Most data on its epidemiology is from single-center studies. Our aim was to conduct a multicenter study to evaluate the epidemiology of delirium in the ICU. METHODS: A 1-day point-prevalence study was undertaken in 104 ICUs from 11 countries in South and North America and Spain. RESULTS: In total, 975 patients were screened, and 497 fulfilled inclusion criteria and were enrolled (median age, 62 years; 52.5% men; 16.7% and 19.9% for ICU and hospital mortality); 64% were admitted to the ICU because of medical causes, and sepsis was the main diagnosis (n = 76; 15.3%). In total, 265 patients were sedated with the Richmond agitation and sedation scale (RASS) deeper than -3, and only 232 (46.6%) patients could be evaluated with the confusion-assessment method for the ICU. The prevalence of delirium was 32.3%. Compared with patients without delirium, those with the diagnosis of delirium had a greater severity of illness at admission, demonstrated by higher sequential organ-failure assessment (SOFA (P = 0.004)) and simplified acute physiology score 3 (SAPS3) scores (P < 0.0001). Delirium was associated with increased ICU (20% versus 5.7%; P = 0.002) and hospital mortality (24 versus 8.3%; P = 0.0017), and longer ICU (P < 0.0001) and hospital length of stay (LOS) (22 (11 to 40) versus 7 (4 to 18) days; P < 0.0001). Previous use of midazolam (P = 0.009) was more frequent in patients with delirium. On multivariate analysis, delirium was independently associated with increased ICU mortality (OR = 3.14 (1.26 to 7.86); CI, 95%) and hospital mortality (OR = 2.5 (1.1 to 5.7); CI, 95%). CONCLUSIONS: In this 1-day international study, delirium was frequent and associated with increased mortality and ICU LOS. The main modifiable risk factors associated with the diagnosis of delirium were the use of invasive devices and sedatives (midazolam).

Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on weaning outcome.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of the implementation of a nursing-driven protocol of sedation on duration of intubation. DESIGN: Before-and-after prospective study. SETTING: 18-bed medical-surgical intensive care unit. PATIENTS: Patients receiving mechanical ventilation longer than 48 hrs who were ready to wean. INTERVENTIONS: During the observational period, sedatives and analgesics were adjusted according to physicians' orders. During the intervention period, sedatives and analgesics were adjusted by nurses according to an algorithm-based sedation guideline, including a sedation scale. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 356 patients were included in the study (176 patients in the observational period and 189 patients in the intervention period). There were no significant differences in the duration of intubation between the two periods (median, 7 [interquartile range, 5-13] days vs. 7 [interquartile range, 5-9] days). In a Kaplan-Meier analysis, the probability of successful extubation was higher during the intervention period than during the observational period (log-rank = 0.02). During the intervention period, patients were more awake without a significant increment in the nurse workload; however, there was no significant decrease in the total doses of sedatives and analgesics administered. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of a nursing-driven protocol of sedation may improve the probability of successful extubation in a heterogeneous population of mechanically ventilated patients.

Does sedation practice delay time to extubation?

UNLABELLED: Criteria for performing a spontaneous breathing trial (SBT) have not been evaluated in controlled trials. An important component of these criteria is neurological status. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether physicians take mental status into consideration before performing an SBT in mechanically ventilated patients. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational study which included 355 mechanically ventilated patients. Daily assessments were made of whether the patients met criteria for performing a SBT. On the day a patient met the criteria, the level of sedation was evaluated using the Glasgow Coma Scale as modified by Cook and Palma (GCS-Cook) and it was registered whether or not the physician carried out an SBT. RESULTS: Two hundred and four patients (57%) underwent an SBT on the day they met the criteria (cohort 1) and in 151 patients (cohort 2) the SBT was delayed a median time of 1 day (interquartile range 1-2). There were differences in the GCS-Cook score on the day the criteria were met for performing an SBT (mean 13+/-3 points in cohort 1 versus 9+/-3 points in cohort 2; P<0.001). There were differences (P<0.001) between the cohorts in days of intubation and length of stay in the intensive care unit. CONCLUSIONS: Neurological status/level of sedation is a factor in the decision whether or not to perform a spontaneous breathing trial.

[Effect of selective digestive decontamination on the nosocomial infection and multiresistant microorganisms incidence in critically ill patients]. / Descontaminación selectiva del tubo digestivo: efecto sobre la incidencia de la infección nosocomial y de los microorganismos multirresistentes en enfermos ingresados en unidades de cuidados intensivos.

BACKGROUND: Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a common complication in mechanically ventilated patients. Other infections related to the use of invasive devices, such urinary tract infections (UTI) and central venous catheter-related bloodstream infections are found in patients admitted in intensive care units (ICU). Selective digestive decontamination (SDD) is a set of manoeuvres (hygiene, topic digestive antimicrobials and short course of systemic antibiotics) aimed at decreasing the incidence of nosocomial infections, mainly VAP, in ICU. The objective of this study was to describe the impact of SDD in the rates of nosocomial infections in an 18-bed medical-surgical ICU. PATIENTS AND METHOD: All patients admitted in the ICU from October 1998 to September 1999 with expected mechanical ventilation for at least 72 h or with an illness where SDD has proven to be efficacious. The infection rates during this period were compared with the infection rates of the period without SDD (October 1997 to September 1998). RESULTS: VAP rates decreased from 12.38 to 3.64 per 1000 days of mechanical ventilation (RR 0.3; CI 95%: 0.16 to 0.53). Urinary tract infection rates decreased form 7.70 to 4.51 per 1000 bladder-catheter days (RR 0.6. CI 95%: 0.37 to 0.93). Central venous catheter related bloodstream infections decreased from 5.92 to 2.73 per 1000 catheter days (RR: 0.5. CI 95%: 0.24 to 0.90). There was no emergence of resistant microorganims when SDD was used. CONCLUSIONS: SDD reduces infection rates in ICU without any significant adverse events.

[Measurement of minimum disposable volume in the extraction of an analysis through an arterial catheter]. / Determinación del volumen mínimo desechable en laextracción de una analítica a través de un catéter arterial.

OBJECTIVE: Arterial catheters are used to extract blood samples. To maintain its permeability we use heparin solution, which may contaminate and alter the desired results. Our aim was to determine the volume of the minimum discards during blood extractions to avoid results that might be altered in the analysis of biochemistry. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective study was carried out in 18 beds intensive care unit. Patients with arterial catheter (Seldicath) were included, maintaining 500 UI of heparin in saline of 500 ml, at a pressure of 300 mmHg through pressurizer (Tycos). The dead space (DS) in the radial arterial system is 0.8 ml and 1 ml in the femoral. We analyzed the reliability of different discards comparing the following: 3 ml + DS, 7.5 ml + DS, 12 ml + DS and 16.5 ml + DS. The statistical analysis was carried out through ANOVA and t Student. RESULTS: In biochemistry, significant differences were not found except for potasium (p< 0.001) with 3 ml+DS during control, although it is not clinically relevant [difference through = 0.1 mEq/l (DS 0.2)]. Significant differences in prothrombina (p = 0.004) were found in coagulation, comparing 3 ml+DS and 16.5 ml + DS and in cefaline, comparing 7.5 ml + DS (p< 0.0001) and 16.5 ml + DS. There were not significant differences in the studies of gases. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that to reach a reliable analytical results, it is not necessary to discard more than 3 ml+DS in biochemistry and in blood gases, and to determine cefalina time would necessary to discard a minimum of 7.5 ml+DS.