Contribution of parenting to complex syntax development in preschool children with developmental delays or typical development.

BACKGROUND: Despite studies of how parent-child interactions relate to early child language development, few have examined the continued contribution of parenting to more complex language skills through the preschool years. The current study explored how positive and negative parenting behaviours relate to growth in complex syntax learning from child age 3 to age 4 years, for children with typical development or developmental delays (DDs). METHODS: Participants were children with or without DD (N = 60) participating in a longitudinal study of development. Parent-child interactions were transcribed and coded for parenting domains and child language. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of parenting to complex syntax growth in children with typical development or DD. RESULTS: Analyses supported a final model, F(9,50) = 11.90, P < .001, including a significant three-way interaction between positive parenting behaviours, negative parenting behaviours and child delay status. This model explained 68.16% of the variance in children's complex syntax at age 4. Simple two-way interactions indicated differing effects of parenting variables for children with or without DD. CONCLUSIONS: Results have implications for understanding of complex syntax acquisition in young children, as well as implications for interventions.

Maternal control and early child dysregulation: Moderating roles of ethnicity and child delay status.

BACKGROUND: Maternal controlling behaviour has been found to influence child development, particularly in behavioural and emotional regulation. Given the higher rates of interfering parent control found in mothers of children with developmental delays (DD) and Latina mothers, their children could be at increased risk for behavioural and emotional dysregulation. While studies generally support this increased risk for children with DD, findings for Latino children are mixed and often attributed to cultural models of child rearing. The present study sought to determine the moderating roles of child DD and mother ethnicity in determining the relationships between two types of parent control (supportive directiveness and interference) and child dysregulation over time. METHODS: The present study, involving 178 3-year old children with DD (n = 80) or typical development (n = 98), examined observed parent control (directive versus interfering) of Latina and Anglo mothers as it relates to change in preschool child dysregulation over 2 years. RESULTS: Interfering parent control was greater for children with DD and also for Latino mothers. Supportive directive parenting generally related to relatively greater decline in child behaviour and emotion dysregulation over time, while interfering parenting generally related to less decline in child behaviour dysregulation over time. In Anglo but not Latino families, these relationships tended to vary as a function of child disability. CONCLUSIONS: Parent directives that support, rather than deter, ongoing child activity may promote positive regulatory development. These results particularly hold for children with DD and Latino families, and have implications for parenting practices and intervention.

The effects of early positive parenting and developmental delay status on child emotion dysregulation.

BACKGROUND: Emotion regulation has been identified as a robust predictor of adaptive functioning across a variety of domains (Aldao et al. ). Furthermore, research examining early predictors of competence and deficits in ER suggests that factors internal to the individual (e.g. neuroregulatory reactivity, behavioural traits and cognitive ability) and external to the individual (e.g. caregiving styles and explicit ER training) contribute to the development of ER (Calkins ). Many studies have focused on internal sources or external sources; however, few have studied them simultaneously within one model, especially in studies examining children with developmental delays (DD). Here, we addressed this specific research gap and examined the contributions of one internal factor and one external factor on emotion dysregulation outcomes in middle childhood. Specifically, our current study used structural equation modelling (SEM) to examine prospective, predictive relationships between DD status, positive parenting at age 4 years and child emotion dysregulation at age 7 years. METHOD: Participants were 151 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of young children with and without DD. A positive parenting factor was composed of sensitivity and scaffolding scores from mother-child interactions at home and in the research centre at child age 4 years. A child dysregulation factor was composed of a dysregulation code from mother-child interactions and a parent-report measure of ER and lability/negativity at age 7 years. Finally, we tested the hypothesis that positive parenting would mediate the relationship between DD and child dysregulation. RESULTS: Mothers of children with DD exhibited fewer sensitive and scaffolding behaviours compared with mothers of typically developing children, and children with DD were more dysregulated on all measures of ER. SEM revealed that both DD status and early positive parenting predicted emotion dysregulation in middle childhood. Furthermore, findings provided support for our hypothesis that early positive parenting mediated the relationship between DD and dysregulation. CONCLUSIONS: This work enhances our understanding of the development of ER across childhood and how endogenous child factors (DD status) and exogenous family factors (positive parenting) affect this process. Our findings provide clear implications for early intervention programmes for children with DD. Because of the predictive relationships between (a) developmental status and ER and (b) parenting and ER, the results imply that sensitive parenting behaviours should be specifically targeted in parent interventions for children with DD.

Unsupportive parenting and internalising behaviour problems in children with or without intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: Children with intellectual disability (ID) are at heightened risk for developing other psychological disorders, including internalising disorders. Anxiety and depression have been shown to be familial, and parenting is a contributing factor to the development of these disorders. To extend this research, we examined the extent to which mother and father depression and negative, unsupportive parenting related to child internalising behaviour problems, in children with ID or with typical development (TD). METHOD: Participants were 156 mother and father dyads and their children, assessed at ages 4 and 5 years. We examined parent (mother and father) and child delay status (ID and TD) in relation to measures of both observed and self-reported unsupportive, negative parenting. Utilising moderation models, we examined the relationship between parental depression, unsupportive/negative parenting and child internalising behaviour problems. RESULTS: Unsupportive, negative parenting differed based on parent gender and child delay status. In addition, father depression was a significant moderator of the relationship between unsupportive parenting and child internalising behaviour problems. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ID were found to be at higher risk of experiencing unsupportive, negative parenting than children with TD. Children of depressed fathers were especially vulnerable to developing internalising behaviour problems in an unsupportive parenting context.

Emotion dysregulation and social competence: stability, change and predictive power.

BACKGROUND: Social difficulties are closely linked to emotion dysregulation among children with typical development (TD). Children with developmental delays (DD) are at risk for poor social outcomes, but the relationship between social and emotional development within this population is not well understood. The current study examines the extent to which emotion dysregulation is related to social problems across middle childhood among children with TD or DD. METHOD: Children with TD (IQ ≥ 85, n = 113) and children with DD (IQ ≤ 75, n = 61) participated in a longitudinal study. Annual assessments were completed at ages 7, 8 and 9 years. At each assessment, mothers reported on children's emotion dysregulation, and both mothers and teachers reported on children's social difficulties. RESULTS: Children with DD had higher levels of emotion dysregulation and social problems at each age than those with TD. Emotion dysregulation and social problems were significantly positively correlated within both TD and DD groups using mother report of social problems, and within the TD group using teacher report of social problems. Among children with TD, emotion dysregulation consistently predicted change in social problems from one year to the next. However, among children with DD, emotion dysregulation offered no unique prediction value above and beyond current social problems. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggested that the influence of emotion regulation abilities on social development may be a less salient pathway for children with DD. These children may have more influences, beyond emotion regulation, on their social behaviour, highlighting the importance of directly targeting social skill deficits among children with DD in order to ameliorate their social difficulties.

Resilient parenting of preschool children at developmental risk.

BACKGROUND: Given the great benefits of effective parenting to child development under normal circumstances, and the even greater benefits in the face of risk, it is important to understand why some parents manage to be effective in their interactions with their child despite facing formidable challenges. This study examined factors that promoted effective parenting in the presence of child developmental delay, high child behaviour problems, and low family income. METHOD: Data were obtained from 232 families at child age 3 and 5 years. Using an adapted ABCX model, we examined three risk domains (child developmental delay, child behaviour problems, and low family income) and three protective factors (mother's education, health, and optimism). The outcome of interest was positive parenting as coded from mother-child interactions. RESULTS: Levels of positive parenting differed across levels of risk. Education and optimism appeared to be protective factors for positive parenting at ages 3 and 5, and health appeared to be an additional protective factor at age 5. There was an interaction between risk and education at age 3; mothers with higher education engaged in more positive parenting at higher levels of risk than did mothers with less education. There was also an interaction between risk and optimism at age 3; mothers with higher optimism engaged in more positive parenting at lower levels of risk than did mothers with less optimism. The risk index did not predict change in positive parenting from age 3-5, but the protective factor of maternal health predicted positive changes. CONCLUSIONS: This study examined factors leading to positive parenting in the face of risk, a topic that has received less attention in the literature on disability. Limitations, future directions, and implications for intervention are discussed.

Parent-child problem solving in families of children with or without intellectual disability.

OBJECTIVE: To examine differences in child social competence and parent-child interactions involving children with intellectual disability (ID) or typical development (TD) during a Parent-Child Problem-Solving Task. DESIGN: Mothers and their 9-year-old children (n = 122) participated in a problem-solving task in which they discussed and tried to resolve an issue they disagreed about. The interactions were coded on child and mother problem solving and affect behaviours, as well as the dyad's problem resolution. RESULTS: Children with ID (n = 35) were rated lower on expression/negotiation skills and higher on resistance to the task than children with TD (n = 87). Mothers in the ID group (vs. TD group) were more likely to direct the conversation. However, there were no group differences on maternal feeling acknowledgement, engagement, warmth or antagonism. The ID dyads were less likely to come to a resolution and to compromise in doing so than the TD dyads. These group differences were not attributable to differences in children's behaviour problems. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ID and their mothers had more difficulty resolving problems, and this increased difficulty was not explained by greater behaviour problems. Additionally, with the exception of directiveness, mothers of children with ID displayed similar behaviours and affect towards their children during problem solving as mothers of children with TD. Results suggest that the Parent-Child Problem-Solving Task is a useful way to assess social skills and associated parental behaviours in middle childhood beyond self-report. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children with and without intellectual disability: an examination across time.

BACKGROUND: Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities are at heightened risk for mental disorders, and disruptive behaviour disorders appear to be the most prevalent. The current study is a longitudinal examination of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among children with and without intellectual disability (ID) across ages 5 to 8. METHOD: We assessed 228 5-year-old children, 87 with ID and 141 with typical development (TD), for clinical diagnoses using a structured interview. These interviews were conducted with mothers annually from child age 5 to 8. RESULTS: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder was over 3 times as prevalent in the ID group as in the TD group across ages 5, 6, 7 and 8. The diagnosis of ADHD tended to emerge earlier and was more stable in the ID group; however, the total number and relative frequency of ADHD symptoms endorsed appeared to be similar within the two groups across time. With respect to the developmental course, the trajectories of ADHD inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms over time were similar in the two groups. DISCUSSION: Children with ID appear to be at heightened risk for ADHD and they may experience a longer and more persistent course of the disorder. These findings highlight the need for making interventions available for early treatment of this condition in children with ID.

The role of marital quality and spousal support in behaviour problems of children with and without intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: Children with intellectual disability (ID) have been found to be at an increased risk for developing behavioural problems. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the marital domain, including marital quality and spousal support, and behaviour problems in children with and without ID. METHODS: The relationship between the marital domain and child behaviour problems was examined in 132 families of 6-year-olds with and without ID. Using hierarchical regression, these relationships were also studied over time from child ages 6-8 years. Child behaviour problems were assessed with mother-reported Child Behavior Checklist. The marital domain was measured using the Dyadic Adjustment Scale-7 and the Spousal Support and Agreement Scale. Mother-reported parenting stress and observed parenting practices were tested as potential mediators of the relationship between the marital domain and child behaviour problems. RESULTS: Mean levels of the marital domain were not significantly different between typically developing (TD) and ID groups, but there were significantly greater levels of variance in reported marital quality in the ID group at ages 6, 7 and 8. The marital domain score at child age 6 years predicted child behaviour problems at age 8 for the TD group only. This predictive relationship appeared to be a unidirectional effect, as child behaviour problems at age 6 were not found to predict levels of the marital domain at age 8. Parenting stress partially mediated this relationship for the TD group. CONCLUSIONS: The marital domain may have a greater impact on behavioural outcomes for TD children. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

Resilience and the course of daily parenting stress in families of young children with intellectual disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Parenting stresses have consistently been found to be higher in parents of children with intellectual disabilities (ID); yet, some families are able to be resilient and thrive in the face of these challenges. Despite the considerable research on stress in families of ID, there is still little known about the stability and compensatory factors associated with everyday parenting stresses. METHODS: Trajectories of daily parenting stress were studied for both mothers and fathers of children with ID across child ages 36-60 months, as were specific familial risk and resilience factors that affect these trajectories, including psychological well-being of each parent, marital adjustment and positive parent-child relationships. RESULTS: Mothers' daily parenting stress significantly increased over time, while fathers' daily parenting stress remained more constant. Decreases in mothers' daily parenting stress trajectory were associated with both mother and father's well-being and perceived marital adjustment, as well as a positive father-child relationship. However, decreases in fathers' daily parenting stress trajectory were only affected by mother's well-being and both parents' perceived marital adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: Parenting stress processes are not shared entirely across the preschool period in parents of children with ID. Although individual parent characteristics and high-quality dyadic relationships contribute to emerging resilience in parents of children with ID, parents also affect each others' more resilient adaptations in ways that have not been previously considered.

Reversibility of the activation of soluble phospholipase A2 on lipid bilayers: implications for the activation mechanism.

The time-courses of hydrolysis of large vesicles of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine were compared using four species of phospholipase A2 (Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus, Crotalus adamanteus and Naja naja venoms and porcine pancreatic). In all four cases, the hydrolysis rate suddenly increases 10 to 100-fold at the time (tau) when a specific mole fraction of reaction products has accumulated. The intrinsic fluorescence emission of the three venom enzymes also increases suddenly at time tau. Both the activation and the fluorescence change are reversible with a half-time of about 50 s for the activity and 2 to 6 s for the fluorescence. These reversal rates and the vesicle concentration dependence of tau are considered for monomer and dimer enzyme activation models. Apparently, at least three states of the enzyme exist beyond the initial unbound state: (1) inactive and bound, (2) inactive with high fluorescence and (3) active. The dimer model already contains the necessary number of states but requires that the activation rate be much lower than the reversal rate to account for the vesicle concentration dependence of tau. Success of the monomer model requires an enzyme state additional to those proposed previously. Although these results do not exclude either the monomer or dimer models conclusively, they do impose important constraints on each model.

Quantification of the interaction of lysolecithin with phosphatidylcholine vesicles using bovine serum albumin: relevance to the activation of phospholipase A2.

The activity of soluble phospholipase A2 to hydrolyze phosphatidylcholine vesicles increases abruptly after a lag time of several minutes. The onset of this apparent activation event probably results from the accumulation of a threshold mole fraction of the hydrolysis products (lysolecithin and fatty acid) in the bilayer. One important observation relevant to the mechanism of this activation process is the biphasic dependence of the lag time on vesicle concentration. To test whether this dependence can be attributed entirely to the strength of partitioning of the lysolecithin into the phosphatidylcholine bilayer, we estimated the apparent partition coefficient of lysophospholipid in the membrane of phosphatidylcholine vesicles. Based on competition between bovine serum albumin and the vesicles for the lysophospholipid, we estimated the partition coefficient to be about 5.10(-7) for palmitoyl lipids at 39 degrees C and about 9.10(-7) for myristoyl lipids at 22 degrees C. These values were able to rationalize the behavior of the lag time with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine vesicles, but they were unable to predict the behavior with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine. Therefore, it appears that the complete dependence of the lag phase on vesicle concentration must be explained by additional means such as the possible contribution of nascent fatty acid or previously proposed kinetic activation mechanisms.

Quantification of the interaction between lysolecithin and phospholipase A2.

The rate of hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine bilayers by phospholipase A2 may be either enhanced or inhibited by the presence of lysolecithin depending on the experimental conditions examined. To further understand the relationship of lysolecithin to phospholipase A2 activity, the binding of lysolecithin to phospholipase A2 from the venom of Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus was examined by fluorescence spectroscopy. The tryptophan emission intensity of the enzyme was enhanced by 70% upon addition of lysolecithin. The binding isotherm for lysolecithin to the phospholipase A2 estimated from the fluorescence change was biphasic, with a clear break in the curve occurring at the critical micelle concentration of the lysolecithin. Several observations suggested that the phospholipase A2 was capable of hydrolyzing the lysolecithin although at a rate far below that of phospholipid hydrolysis. These experiments were repeated using several other species of phospholipase A2, and the results were found to be general among the enzymes except the lys-49 isozyme from A. p. piscivorus which displayed neither the dependence on the critical micelle concentration for binding nor the ability to hydrolyze lysolecithin. These results were used as the basis for a quantitative analysis of enzyme fluorescence changes that occur during the time course of phospholipid hydrolysis and of the mechanism whereby lysolecithin inhibits the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine bilayers by phospholipase A2.

Effect of hypophysectomy on immunocytochemically demonstrated gonadotropin-releasing hormone in the rat brain.

The objective was to determine the effect of hypophysectomy on the store of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in certain parts of the brain as revealed by immunocytochemistry. The antiserum used was prepared against synthetic GnRH conjugated with limpet hemocyanin. No change was observed in the store of GnRH in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis or in the cephalic segment of the median eminence GnRH was depleted severely from the central and caudal (junction with the infundibular stem) segments of the median eminence. GnRH was not found in the axons of magnocellular neurons that regenerate during repair of the median eminence-pituitary stalk after hypophysectomy.

Dexamethasone inhibits insulin-like growth factor signaling and potentiates myoblast apoptosis.

In the critically ill, glucocorticoids induce myopathy, combining profound protein catabolism and mild myotubular death. Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) inhibit muscle catabolism through activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). Using rat L6 myoblasts, we show that IGF-I also acts through PI3K to inhibit apoptosis induced by hyperosmolar metabolic stress with 300 mM mannitol. We find that the glucocorticoid dexamethasone inhibits this antiapoptotic effect of IGF-I by impairing PI3K signaling. Dexamethasone induces overexpression of the PI3K subunit p85alpha, which, in turn, competes with the complete PI3K heterodimer for binding at insulin receptor substrate-1, inhibiting PI3K activation. Dexamethasone blocks IGF-I-induced phosphorylation of Akt, a PI3K-dependent process. Increased cellular p85alpha abundance, induced by either 10 microM dexamethasone or transient transfection with a plasmid coding for p85alpha, significantly inhibits IGF-I rescue from apoptosis induced by mannitol, as indicated by both loss of cell viability and increased activity of caspase-3 by fluorogenic assay. Conversely, constitutively active PI3K inhibits death induced by mannitol, even in the presence of dexamethasone. These findings may have particular relevance in the pathogenesis of acute steroid myopathy in critical illness, in which catabolic glucocorticoid effects combine with acute metabolic stressors, including sepsis, fasting, and chemical denervation.

Distribution of gonadotropin-releasing hormone in the rat brain as observed with immunocytochemistry.

The distribution of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) was studied in the brain of adult female rats with three immunocytochemical techniques using antisera to unconjugated synthetic GnRH and to GnRH conjugated with limpet hemocyanin. GnRH was found in nervous tissue surrounding blood vessels of the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis. In the median eminence it occurred in nervous tissue associated primarily with the tuberoinfundibular sulci throughout their extent. Cephalic to the pars tuberalis GnRH often spread across the median eminence from sulcus to sulcus. Caudally, with widening of the median eminence, GnRH occurred dorsal to the tuberoinfundibular sulci, and especially in the external lamina medial to the sulci. A broad median zone of the median eminence was rather free of GnRH. GnRH was most concentrated in the region of continuity between the dorsolateral walls of the infundibulum and floor of the third ventricle where the tuberoinfundibular sulci are deep. Caudal to the infundibulum GnRH was disposed in a flat zone through the cephalic portion of the floor of the mammillary recess. In the median eminence GnRH appeared to be located in axons that terminated there. The amount of demonstrable GnRH varied significantly from rat to rat. The distributions of GnRH as revealed by use of antisera to unconjugated and conjugated GnRH were essentially the same. The apparent order of sensitivity of the immunocytochemical methods was: the peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) (Sternberger et al.) procedure greater than the immunoglobulin-enzyme bridge (Mason et al.) procedure smaller than the conjugated antibody (Nakane and Pierce) procedure.

Staff attitudes toward family involvement in residential treatment centers for children.

OBJECTIVES: The goals of this study were to determine the extent of staff members' support for family involvement in residential treatment centers for children, to examine staff members' beliefs about families and the consequences of their involvement, and to examine the relationship between staff members' support of family involvement and their characteristics, experiences, and beliefs. METHODS: A total of 267 staff members at three residential treatment centers for children with psychiatric disorders or mental retardation or both responded to a survey about their experiences with families, beliefs about families, and support for family involvement. RESULTS: Staff members were very supportive of greater family involvement, although they showed more support for families in the role of service recipients than as decision makers. However, staff members did not believe in family reunification as a goal for the majority of children served. The strongest predictors of staff support for family involvement were positive general beliefs about clients' families, the perception that family involvement was advantageous, and the endorsement of fewer reasons to discourage family involvement. CONCLUSIONS: Residential programs seeking to create a more receptive climate for families should help staff members establish positive attitudes about the families they serve and about families' potential role in successful treatment.

Preschool children with externalizing behaviors: experience of fathers and mothers.

Childhood behavior disorders are related to family stress and maladjustment. Little is known, however, about the adjustment of families with preschool-aged children at risk for subsequent behavior disorders. Moreover, fathers' perceptions of child problem behavior and their reactions to it generally have been neglected. Subjects were mothers and fathers of 52 preschool-aged children assigned to one of three groups: control, moderate externalizing, and high externalizing. Higher child externalizing behavior was associated with greater negative family impact, lowered parenting sense of efficacy, and child-rearing practices that were more authoritarian and less authoritative. Mothers and fathers did not differ in actual perceived level of child behavior problems, although both believed that mothers saw more problems. Child Group x Parent interactions indicated that mothers experienced increased stress and a need for help with moderate as well as high child externalizing behaviors, whereas fathers were not elevated on these measures unless the child's externalizing behaviors were high. Implications of these findings for early family intervention are considered.

The impact of young children with externalizing behaviors on their families.

Compared the impact on families of young children with externalizing behaviors (e.g., hyperactive, aggressive; n = 22), autism (n = 20), or no significant problem behaviors (n = 22) on several measures of family functioning. Previous studies have found heightened stress and parental maladjustment in families with externalizing children. The present study expanded upon that literature by (1) including a clinical control group to determine the specific impact of externalizing problems, (2) focusing on preschool aged children, and (3) using a new measure to directly ascertain parents' perception of impact. Compared to parents with normally developing children, parents with externalizing children reported more negative impact on social life, more negative and less positive feelings about parenting, and higher child-related stress. Moreover, parents of externalizing children reported levels of impact and stress as high as those reported by parents of children with autism. On broader measures of parental and marital well-being, however, the three groups of families of preschoolers did not differ. The implications of these findings for intervention are discussed.

Out-of-home placement for children with mental retardation: dimensions of family involvement.

The involvement of families with a child who has mental retardation in residential placement was studied. Sixty-two families who had placed their child out of the home within the previous 2 years were interviewed about behavioral and emotional aspects of involvement. Involvement was high, with 81% of families having at least a monthly visit with their child. There was only marginal evidence for detachment, a lessening of involvement over these 2 years. Although family involvement related to several child and family characteristics, the strongest relation was with facility characteristics, especially opportunities for involvement in the facility.