Fevers and the social costs of acute infection in wild vervet monkeys.

Fevers are considered an adaptive response by the host to infection. For gregarious animals, however, fever and the associated sickness behaviors may signal a temporary loss of capacity, offering other group members competitive opportunities. We implanted wild vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) with miniature data loggers to obtain continuous measurements of core body temperature. We detected 128 fevers in 43 monkeys, totaling 776 fever-days over a 6-year period. Fevers were characterized by a persistent elevation in mean and minimum 24-h body temperature of at least 0.5 °C. Corresponding behavioral data indicated that febrile monkeys spent more time resting and less time feeding, consistent with the known sickness behaviors of lethargy and anorexia, respectively. We found no evidence that fevers influenced the time individuals spent socializing with conspecifics, suggesting social transmission of infection within a group is likely. Notably, febrile monkeys were targeted with twice as much aggression from their conspecifics and were six times more likely to become injured compared to afebrile monkeys. Our results suggest that sickness behavior, together with its agonistic consequences, can carry meaningful costs for highly gregarious mammals. The degree to which social factors modulate the welfare of infected animals is an important aspect to consider when attempting to understand the ecological implications of disease.

Estimates of life history parameters in a high latitude, arid-country vervet monkey population.

We present data on life history parameters from a long-term study of vervet monkeys in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Estimates are presented of age at first conception for females and age at natal dispersal for males, along with the probability of survival to adulthood for infants born during the study, female reproductive life-span, reproductive output (including lifetime reproductive success for a subset of females), and inter-birth interval (IBI) duration. We also assess the effect of maternal age and infant survival on length of IBI. We then go on to compare life history parameters for our population with those from two East African populations in Kenya (Amboseli and Laikipia). We find there is broad consensus across the three populations, although mean infant survival was considerably lower for the two East African sites. Such comparisons must be made cautiously, however, as local ecology across the duration of the studies obviously has an impact on the estimates obtained. With this caveat in place, we consider that the concordance between values is sufficient to enable the values reported here to be used in comparative studies of primate life history, although data from habitats with higher rainfall and lower levels of seasonality are needed, and the results presented here should not be seen as canonical.

Using network synchrony to identify drivers of social dynamics.

Social animals frequently show dynamic social network patterns, the consequences of which are felt at the individual and group level. It is often difficult, however, to identify what drivers are responsible for changes in these networks. We suggest that patterns of network synchronization across multiple social groups can be used to better understand the relative contributions of extrinsic and intrinsic drivers. When groups are socially separated, but share similar physical environments, the extent to which network measures across multiple groups covary (i.e. network synchrony) can provide an estimate of the relative roles of extrinsic and intrinsic drivers. As a case example, we use allogrooming data from three adjacent vervet monkey groups to generate dynamic social networks. We found that network strength was strongly synchronized across the three groups, pointing to shared extrinsic environmental conditions as the driver. We also found low to moderate levels of synchrony in network modularity, suggesting that intrinsic social processes may be more important in driving changes in subgroup formation in this population. We conclude that patterns of network synchronization can help guide future research in identifying the proximate mechanisms behind observed social dynamics in animal groups.

The thermal consequences of primate birth hour and its evolutionary implications.

Most primates, including humans, give birth during the inactive phase of the daily cycle. Practical constraints therefore limit our knowledge of the precise timing of nocturnal birth in wild diurnal primates and so limit our understanding of selective pressures and consequences. We measured maternal core body temperature (Tb) across 24 births in a population of wild vervet monkeys using biologgers. We identified distinct perturbations in Tb during the birth period, including declining Tb during labour and the rapid recovery of Tb post-parturition. Vervet monkeys typically gave birth during their inactive phase in synchrony with the nadir of the maternal nychthemeral Tb rhythm but also showed remarkable inter-individual variability in their absolute Tb during birth. Our findings support the view that selection may have favoured a nocturnal timing of primate birth to coincide with lower night-time Tb and environmental temperatures, which improve thermal efficiency during birth.

Modeling variation in the growth of wild and captive juvenile vervet monkeys in relation to diet and resource availability.

OBJECTIVES: To compare longitudinal weight gain in captive and wild juvenile vervet monkeys and conduct an empirical assessment of different mechanistic growth models. METHODS: Weights were collected from two groups of captive monkeys and two consecutive cohorts of wild monkeys until the end of the juvenile period (~800 days). The captive groups were each fed different diets, while the wild groups experienced different ecological conditions. Three different growth curve models were compared. RESULTS: By 800 days, the wild juveniles were lighter, with a slower maximum growth rate, and reached asymptote earlier than their captive counterparts. There were overall differences in weight and growth rate across the two wild cohorts. This corresponded to differences in resource availability. There was considerable overlap in growth rate and predicted adult weight of male and females in the first, but not the second, wild cohort. Maternal parity was not influential. While the von Bertalanffy curve provided the best fit to the data sets modeled together, the Logistic curve best described growth in the wild cohorts when considered separately. CONCLUSIONS: The growth curves of the two captive cohorts are likely to lie near the maximum attainable by juvenile vervets. It may be helpful to include deviations from these rates when assessing the performance of wild vervet monkeys. The comparison of wild and captive juveniles confirmed the value of comparing different growth curve models, and an appreciation that the best models may well differ for different populations. Choice of mechanistic growth model can, therefore, be empirically justified, rather than theoretically predetermined.

Keeping cool in the heat: Behavioral thermoregulation and body temperature patterns in wild vervet monkeys.

OBJECTIVES: Climate change is having a significant impact on biodiversity and increasing attention is therefore being devoted to identifying the behavioral strategies that a species uses to cope with climatic stress. We explore how wild vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) respond to heat stress, and how behavioral adaptations are used to regulate body temperature. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We implanted wild vervet monkeys with temperature-sensitive data loggers and related the body temperature rhythms of these animals to their use of thermoregulatory behaviors. RESULTS: Environmental temperature had a positive effect on the mean, minima and maxima of daily body temperatures. Environmental temperature had a positive effect on the amount of time that vervet monkeys spent in the shade, and animals that spent more time in the shade had lower body temperature maxima. Drinking water did not have a proximate effect on body temperature, most likely a consequence of their regular access to drinking water. Body temperatures were observed to decrease after swimming events, but tended to return to pre-swim temperatures within 1 hr, suggesting a limited thermal benefit of this behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Our data support the view that vervet monkeys cope well in the heat, and use behavior as a means to aid thermoregulation. The ability of primates to be flexible in their use of thermoregulatory behaviors can contribute positively to their capacity to cope with environmental variability. However, given its broad effect on plant productivity and habitat loss, climate change is a major threat to species' biogeographical distribution and survival.

Infrared thermography cannot be used to approximate core body temperature in wild primates.

Understanding the physiological processes that underpin primate performance is key if we are to assess how a primate might respond when navigating new and changing environments. Given the connection between a mammal's ability to thermoregulate and the changing demands of its thermal environment, increasing attention is being devoted to the study of thermoregulatory processes as a means to assess primate performance. Infrared thermography can be used to record the body surface temperatures of free-ranging animals. However, some uncertainty remains as to how these measurements can be used to approximate core body temperature. Here, we use data collected from wild vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) to examine the relationship between infrared body surface temperature, core body (intra-abdominal) temperature, and local climate, to determine to what extent surface temperatures reflect core body temperature. While we report a positive association between surface and core body temperature-a finding that has previously been used to justify the use of surface temperature measurements as a proxy for core temperature regulation-when we controlled for the effect of the local climate in our analyses, this relationship was no longer observed. That is, body surface temperatures were solely predicted by local climate, and not core body temperatures, suggesting that surface temperatures tell us more about the environment a primate is in, and less about the thermal status of its body core in that environment. Despite the advantages of a noninvasive means to detect and record animal temperatures, infrared thermography alone cannot be used to approximate core body temperature in wild primates.

Field data confirm the ability of a biophysical model to predict wild primate body temperature.

In the face of climate change there is an urgent need to understand how animal performance is affected by environmental conditions. Biophysical models that use principles of heat and mass transfer can be used to explore how an animal's morphology, physiology, and behavior interact with its environment in terms of energy, mass and water balances to affect fitness and performance. We used Niche Mapper™ (NM) to build a vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) biophysical model and tested the model's ability to predict core body temperature (Tb) variation and thermal stress against Tb and behavioral data collected from wild vervets in South Africa. The mean observed Tb in both males and females was within 0.5 °C of NM's predicted Tbs for 91% of hours over the five-year study period. This is the first time that NM's Tb predictions have been validated against field data from a wild endotherm. Overall, these results provide confidence that NM can accurately predict thermal stress and can be used to provide insight into the thermoregulatory consequences of morphological (e.g., body size, shape, fur depth), physiological (e.g. Tb plasticity) and behavioral (e.g., huddling, resting, shade seeking) adaptations. Such an approach allows users to test hypotheses about how animals adapt to thermoregulatory challenges and make informed predictions about potential responses to environmental change such as climate change or habitat conversion. Importantly, NM's animal submodel is a general model that can be adapted to other species, requiring only basic information on an animal's morphology, physiology and behavior.

Functional social structure in baboons: Modeling interactions between social and environmental structure in group-level foraging.

In mobile social groups, cohesion is thought to be driven by patterns of attraction at both the individual and group level. In long-lived species with high group stability and repeated interactions, such as baboons, individual-to-individual attractions have the potential to play a large role in group cohesion and overall movement patterns. In previous work, we found that the patterning of inter-individual attraction gave rise to an emergent group-level structure, whereby a core of more influential, inter-dependent individuals exerted a unidirectional influence on the movements of peripheral animals. Here, we use agent-based modeling of baboon groups to investigate whether this core-periphery structure has any functional consequences for foraging behavior. By varying individual level attractions, we produced baboon groups that contained influence structures that varied from more to less centralized. Our results suggest that varying centrality affects both the ability of the group to detect resource structure in the environment, as well as the ability of the group to exploit these resources. Our models predict that foraging groups with more centralized social structures will show a reduction in detection and an increase in exploitation of resources in their environment, and will produce more extreme foraging outcomes. More generally, our results highlight how a group's internal social structure can result in mobile social animals being able to more (or less) effectively exploit environmental structure, and capitalize on the distribution of resources. In addition, our agent-based model can be used to generate testable predictions that can be tested among the extant baboon allotaxa. This will add value to the existing body of work on responses to local ecology, as well as providing a means to test hypotheses relating to the phylogeography of the baboons and, by analogy, shed light on patterns of hominin evolution in time and space.

Network integration and limits to social inheritance in vervet monkeys.

Social networks can be adaptive for members and a recent model (Ilany and Akçay 2016 Nat. Comm.7, 12084 (doi:10.1038/ncomms12084)) has demonstrated that network structure can be maintained by a simple process of social inheritance. Here, we ask how juvenile vervet monkeys integrate into their adult grooming networks, using the model to test whether observed grooming patterns replicate network structure. Female juveniles, who are philopatric, increased their grooming effort towards adults more than males, although this was not reciprocated by the adults themselves. While more consistent maternal grooming networks, together with maternal network strength, predicted increasing similarity in the patterning of mother-daughter grooming allocations, daughters' grooming networks generally did not match closely those of their mothers. However, maternal networks themselves were not very consistent across time, thus presenting youngsters with a moving target that may be difficult to match. Observed patterns of juvenile female grooming did not replicate the adult network, for which increased association with adults not groomed by their mothers would be necessary. These results suggest that network flexibility, not stability, characterizes our groups and that juveniles are exposed to, and must learn to cope with, temporal shifts in network structure. We hypothesize that this may lead to individual variation in behavioural flexibility, which in turn may help explain why and how variation in sociability influences fitness.

Assessment of Male Reproductive Skew via Highly Polymorphic STR Markers in Wild Vervet Monkeys, Chlorocebus pygerythrus.

Male reproductive strategies have been well studied in primate species where the ability of males to monopolize reproductive access is high. Less is known about species where males cannot monopolize mating access. Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) are interesting in this regard as female codominance reduces the potential for male monopolization. Under this condition, we assessed whether male dominance rank still influences male mating and reproductive success, by assigning paternities to infants in a population of wild vervets in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. To determine paternity, we established microsatellite markers from noninvasive fecal samples via cross-species amplification. In addition, we evaluated male mating and reproductive success for 3 groups over 4 mating seasons. We identified 21 highly polymorphic microsatellites (number of alleles = 7.5 ± 3.1 [mean ± SD], observed heterozygosity = 0.691 ± 0.138 [mean ± SD]) and assigned paternity to 94 of 97 sampled infants (96.9%) with high confidence. Matings pooled over 4 seasons were significantly skewed across 3 groups, although skew indices were low (B index = 0.023-0.030) and mating success did not correlate with male dominance. Paternities pooled over 4 seasons were not consistently significantly skewed (B index = 0.005-0.062), with high-ranking males siring more offspring than subordinates only in some seasons. We detected 6 cases of extra-group paternity (6.4%) and 4 cases of natal breeding (4.3%). Our results suggest that alternative reproductive strategies besides priority of access for dominant males are likely to affect paternity success, warranting further investigation into the determinants of paternity among species with limited male monopolization potential.

Faecal glucocorticoid metabolite monitoring as a measure of physiological stress in captive and wild vervet monkeys.

The development of non-invasive techniques to analyse physiological stress in mammalian species has revolutionised field-based endocrinology. However, careful validation of the methods used to determine faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) and other hormone concentrations are required on a species- and sex-specific basis. In this study, we performed an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test on four (two male and two female) captive vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) to determine the most appropriate enzyme immunoassay (EIA) from a suite of available EIAs. Furthermore, we took advantage of a potentially stressful event in our wild vervet population from Samara Private Game Reserve, South Africa, to examine if an alpha-beta female rank reversal increases the physiological stress of those individuals directly involved, as well as other group members. Both our physiological and biological validation studies revealed that a cortisol assay was the most appropriate EIA for monitoring fGCM alterations in vervet monkeys. In addition, we found that the observed rank-reversal had no significant effect on the physiological stress levels of uninvolved group members. Our study highlights that physiological validation is imperative and, where possible, should be conducted in parallel with a carefully considered biologically-relevant test under natural conditions. Overall, our results provide a necessary step for future studies to examine physiological stress of vervet monkeys via fGCM monitoring by validating a suitable EIA for this species. This paves the way for future research into the health and welfare of both captive and wild vervet monkeys, and will allow researchers to assess the behavioural, social and ecological correlates of physiological stress levels of this species.

General intelligence does not help us understand cognitive evolution.

Burkart et al. conflate the domain-specificity of cognitive processes with the statistical pattern of variance in behavioural measures that partly reflect those processes. General intelligence is a statistical abstraction, not a cognitive trait, and we argue that the former does not warrant inferences about the nature or evolution of the latter.

Measuring arm function early after stroke: is the DASH good enough?

OBJECTIVE: Despite a growing call to use patient-reported outcomes in clinical research, few are available for measuring upper limb function post-stroke. We examined the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) to evaluate its measurement performance in acute stroke. In doing so, we compared results from traditional and modern psychometric methods. METHODS: 172 people with acute stroke completed the DASH. Those with upper limb impairments completed the DASH again at 6 weeks (n=99). Data (n=271) were analysed using two psychometric paradigms: traditional psychometric (Classical Test Theory, CTT) analyses examined data completeness, scaling assumptions, targeting, reliability and responsiveness; Rasch Measurement Theory (RMT) analyses examined scale-to-sample targeting, scale performance and person measurement. RESULTS: CTT analyses implied the DASH was psychometrically robust in this sample. Data completeness was high, criteria for scaling assumptions were satisfied (item-total correlations 0.55-0.95), targeting was good, internal consistency reliability was high (Cronbach's α=0.99) and responsiveness was clinically moderate (effect size=0.51). However, RMT analyses identified important limitations: scale-to-sample targeting was suboptimal, 4 items had disordered response category thresholds, 16 items exhibited misfit, 3 pairs of items had high residual correlations (>0.60) and 84 person fit residuals exceeded the recommended range. CONCLUSIONS: RMT methods identified limitations missed by CTT and indicate areas for improvement of the DASH as an upper limb measure for acute stroke. Findings, similar to those identified in multiple sclerosis, highlight the need for scales to have strong conceptual underpinnings, with their development and modification guided by sophisticated psychometric methods.

Thermal consequences of increased pelt loft infer an additional utilitarian function for grooming.

A strong case has been made that the primary function of grooming is hygienic. Nevertheless, its persistence in the absence of hygienic demand, and its obvious tactical importance to members of primate groups, underpins the view that grooming has become uncoupled from its utilitarian objectives and is now principally of social benefit. We identify improved thermoregulatory function as a previously unexplored benefit of grooming and so broaden our understanding of the utilitarian function of this behavior. Deriving the maximum thermal benefits from the pelt requires that it be kept clean and that the loft of the pelt is maintained (i.e., greater pelt depth), both of which can be achieved by grooming. In a series of wind-tunnel experiments, we measured the heat transfer characteristics of vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) pelts in the presence and absence of backcombing, which we used as a proxy for grooming. Our data indicate that backcombed pelts have improved thermal performance, offering significantly better insulation than flattened pelts and, hence, better protection from the cold. Backcombed pelts also had significantly lower radiant heat loads compared to flattened pelts, providing improved protection from radiant heat. Such thermal benefits, therefore, furnish grooming with an additional practical value to which its social use is anchored. Given the link between thermoregulatory ability and energy expenditure, our findings suggest that grooming for thermal benefits may be an important explanatory variable in the relationship between levels of sociability and individual fitness. Am. J. Primatol. 78:456-461, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Why Brains Are Not Computers, Why Behaviorism Is Not Satanism, and Why Dolphins Are Not Aquatic Apes.

Modern psychology has, to all intents and purposes, become synonymous with cognitive psychology, with an emphasis on the idea that the brain is a form of computer, whose job is to take in sensory input, process information, and produce motor output. This places the brain at a remove from both the body and environment and denies the intimate connection that exists between them. As a result, a great injustice is done to both human and nonhuman animals: On the one hand, we fail to recognize the distinctive nature of nonhuman cognition, and on the other hand, we continue to promote a somewhat misleading view of human psychological capacities. Here, I suggest a more mutualistic, embodied, enactive view might allow us to ask more interesting questions about how animals of all kinds come to know their worlds, in ways that avoid the (inevitable) anthropocentric baggage of the cognitivist viewpoint.

Does natural selection favour taller stature among the tallest people on earth?

The Dutch are the tallest people on earth. Over the last 200 years, they have grown 20 cm in height: a rapid rate of increase that points to environmental causes. This secular trend in height is echoed across all Western populations, but came to an end, or at least levelled off, much earlier than in The Netherlands. One possibility, then, is that natural selection acted congruently with these environmentally induced changes to further promote tall stature among the people of the lowlands. Using data from the LifeLines study, which follows a large sample of the population of the north of The Netherlands (n = 94 516), we examined how height was related to measures of reproductive success (as a proxy for fitness). Across three decades (1935-1967), height was consistently related to reproductive output (number of children born and number of surviving children), favouring taller men and average height women. This was despite a later age at first birth for taller individuals. Furthermore, even in this low-mortality population, taller women experienced higher child survival, which contributed positively to their increased reproductive success. Thus, natural selection in addition to good environmental conditions may help explain why the Dutch are so tall.

Lending a hand: can DASH items help ABILHAND improve manual ability measurement in multiple sclerosis?

BACKGROUND: Our examination in multiple sclerosis (MS) of the ABILHAND, a patient-reported outcome (PRO) instrument measuring manual ability, identified limited measurement range and precision. These deficiencies could lead to type II errors in clinical trials. OBJECTIVES: This paper aims to determine if ABILHAND's measurement performance in MS can be improved by adding relevant items from the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand scale (DASH). METHODS: The 23-item ABILHAND and 30-item DASH were administered to 461 people with MS. Data from the ABILHAND were combined with 16 DASH items to create a 39-item scale (AD-39). Using Rasch Measurement Theory methods, we compared the psychometric properties of AD-39 with ABILHAND. RESULTS: Data were analysed from 300 people. AD-39 performed robustly as a measure and had greater measurement range, lower floor and ceiling effects, and higher reliability (person separation index 0.97) than ABILHAND. Surprisingly, AD-39 appeared no better than ABILHAND at detecting group differences in self-reported hand function. CONCLUSION: Despite improving some psychometric properties, adding 16 DASH items to the ABILHAND did not improve its measurement performance to the degree expected. Our explanations for this anomaly emphasise the importance of evidence-based, conceptually driven scale modifications guided by hypothesis testing psychometric methods.

Social integration confers thermal benefits in a gregarious primate.

Sociality has been shown to have adaptive value for gregarious species, with more socially integrated animals within groups experiencing higher reproductive success and longevity. The value of social integration is often suggested to derive from an improved ability to deal with social stress within a group; other potential stressors have received less attention. We investigated the relationship between environmental temperature, an important non-social stressor, and social integration in wild female vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), using implanted data loggers to obtain direct measures of core body temperature. Heterothermy (as measured by 24-h amplitude of body temperature) increased, and 24-h minima of body temperature decreased, as the 24-h minimum ambient temperature decreased. As winter progressed, monkeys became increasingly heterothermic and displayed lower 24-h minima of body temperature. Monkeys with a greater number of social partners displayed a smaller 24-h amplitude (that is, were more homoeothermic) and higher 24-h minima of body temperature (that is, became less hypothermic), than did animals with fewer social partners. Our findings demonstrate that social integration has a direct influence on thermoregulatory ability: individual animals that form and maintain more social relationships within their group experience improved thermal competence compared to those with fewer social relationships. Given the likely energetic consequences of thermal benefits, our findings offer a viable physiological explanation that can help account for variations in fitness in relation to individual differences in social integration.

Taking the aggravation out of data aggregation: A conceptual guide to dealing with statistical issues related to the pooling of individual-level observational data.

Field data often include multiple observations taken from the same individual. In order to avoid pseudoreplication, it is commonplace to aggregate data, generating a mean score per individual, and then using these aggregated data in subsequent analyses. Aggregation, however, can generate problems of its own. Not only does it lead to a loss of information, it can also leave analyses vulnerable to the "ecological fallacy": the drawing of false inferences about individual behavior on the basis of population level ("ecological") data. It can also result in Simpson's paradox, where relationships seen at the individual level can be completely reversed when analyzed at the aggregate level. These phenomena have been documented widely in the medical and social sciences but tend to go unremarked in primatological studies that rely on observational data from the field. Here, we provide a conceptual guide that explains how and why aggregate data are vulnerable to the ecological fallacy and Simpson's paradox, illustrating these points using data on baboons. We then discuss one particular analytical approach, namely multi-level modeling, that can potentially eliminate these problems. By highlighting the issue of the ecological fallacy, and increasing awareness of how datasets are often organized into a number of different levels, we also highlight the manner in which researchers can more positively exploit the structure of their datasets, without any information loss. These analytical approaches may thus provide greater insight into behavior by permitting more thorough investigation of interactions and cross-level effects.