SLC39A8 Deficiency: A Disorder of Manganese Transport and Glycosylation.

SLC39A8 is a membrane transporter responsible for manganese uptake into the cell. Via whole-exome sequencing, we studied a child that presented with cranial asymmetry, severe infantile spasms with hypsarrhythmia, and dysproportionate dwarfism. Analysis of transferrin glycosylation revealed severe dysglycosylation corresponding to a type II congenital disorder of glycosylation (CDG) and the blood manganese levels were below the detection limit. The variants c.112G>C (p.Gly38Arg) and c.1019T>A (p.Ile340Asn) were identified in SLC39A8. A second individual with the variants c.97G>A (p.Val33Met) and c.1004G>C (p.Ser335Thr) on the paternal allele and c.610G>T (p.Gly204Cys) on the maternal allele was identified among a group of unresolved case subjects with CDG. These data demonstrate that variants in SLC39A8 impair the function of manganese-dependent enzymes, most notably ß-1,4-galactosyltransferase, a Golgi enzyme essential for biosynthesis of the carbohydrate part of glycoproteins. Impaired galactosylation leads to a severe disorder with deformed skull, severe seizures, short limbs, profound psychomotor retardation, and hearing loss. Oral galactose supplementation is a treatment option and results in complete normalization of glycosylation. SLC39A8 deficiency links a trace element deficiency with inherited glycosylation disorders.

Autosomal-Recessive Intellectual Disability with Cerebellar Atrophy Syndrome Caused by Mutation of the Manganese and Zinc Transporter Gene SLC39A8.

Manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) are essential divalent cations used by cells as protein cofactors; various human studies and animal models have demonstrated the importance of Mn and Zn for development. Here we describe an autosomal-recessive disorder in six individuals from the Hutterite community and in an unrelated Egyptian sibpair; the disorder is characterized by intellectual disability, developmental delay, hypotonia, strabismus, cerebellar atrophy, and variable short stature. Exome sequencing in one affected Hutterite individual and the Egyptian family identified the same homozygous variant, c.112G>C (p.Gly38Arg), affecting a conserved residue of SLC39A8. The affected Hutterite and Egyptian individuals did not share an extended common haplotype, suggesting that the mutation arose independently. SLC39A8 is a member of the solute carrier gene family known to import Mn, Zn, and other divalent cations across the plasma membrane. Evaluation of these two metal ions in the affected individuals revealed variably low levels of Mn and Zn in blood and elevated levels in urine, indicating renal wasting. Our findings identify a human Mn and Zn transporter deficiency syndrome linked to SLC39A8, providing insight into the roles of Mn and Zn homeostasis in human health and development.

A family segregating lethal neonatal coenzyme Q10 deficiency caused by mutations in COQ9.

Primary CoQ10 deficiency is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous, autosomal recessive disorder resulting from mutations in genes involved in the synthesis of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10). To date, mutations in nine proteins required for the biosynthesis of CoQ10 cause CoQ10 deficiency with varying clinical presentations. In 2009 the first patient with mutations in COQ9 was reported in an infant with a neonatal-onset, primary CoQ10 deficiency with multi-system disease. Here we describe four siblings with a previously undiagnosed lethal disorder characterized by oligohydramnios and intrauterine growth restriction, variable cardiomyopathy, anemia, and renal anomalies. The first and third pregnancy resulted in live born babies with abnormal tone who developed severe, treatment unresponsive lactic acidosis after birth and died hours later. Autopsy on one of the siblings demonstrated brain changes suggestive of the subacute necrotizing encephalopathy of Leigh disease. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) revealed the siblings shared compound heterozygous mutations in the COQ9 gene with both variants predicted to affect splicing. RT-PCR on RNA from patient fibroblasts revealed that the c.521 + 2 T > C variant resulted in splicing out of exons 4-5 and the c.711 + 3G > C variant spliced out exon 6, resulting in undetectable levels of COQ9 protein in patient fibroblasts. The biochemical profile of patient fibroblasts demonstrated a drastic reduction in CoQ10 levels. An additional peak on the chromatogram may represent accumulation of demethoxy coenzyme Q (DMQ), which was shown previously to accumulate as a result of a defect in COQ9. This family expands our understanding of this rare metabolic disease and highlights the prenatal onset, clinical variability, severity, and biochemical profile associated with COQ9-related CoQ10 deficiencies.

FORGE Canada Consortium: outcomes of a 2-year national rare-disease gene-discovery project.

Inherited monogenic disease has an enormous impact on the well-being of children and their families. Over half of the children living with one of these conditions are without a molecular diagnosis because of the rarity of the disease, the marked clinical heterogeneity, and the reality that there are thousands of rare diseases for which causative mutations have yet to be identified. It is in this context that in 2010 a Canadian consortium was formed to rapidly identify mutations causing a wide spectrum of pediatric-onset rare diseases by using whole-exome sequencing. The FORGE (Finding of Rare Disease Genes) Canada Consortium brought together clinicians and scientists from 21 genetics centers and three science and technology innovation centers from across Canada. From nation-wide requests for proposals, 264 disorders were selected for study from the 371 submitted; disease-causing variants (including in 67 genes not previously associated with human disease; 41 of these have been genetically or functionally validated, and 26 are currently under study) were identified for 146 disorders over a 2-year period. Here, we present our experience with four strategies employed for gene discovery and discuss FORGE's impact in a number of realms, from clinical diagnostics to the broadening of the phenotypic spectrum of many diseases to the biological insight gained into both disease states and normal human development. Lastly, on the basis of this experience, we discuss the way forward for rare-disease genetic discovery both in Canada and internationally.

A novel NDUFS4 frameshift mutation causes Leigh disease in the Hutterite population.

Leigh disease is a progressive, infantile-onset, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by feeding difficulties, failure to thrive, hypotonia, seizures, and central respiratory compromise. Metabolic and neuroimaging investigations typically identify abnormalities consistent with a disorder of mitochondrial energy metabolism. Mutations in more than 35 genes affecting the mitochondrial respiratory chain encoded from both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes have been associated with Leigh disease. The clinical presentations of five individuals of Hutterite descent with Leigh disease are described herein. An identity-by-descent mapping and candidate gene approach was used to identify a novel homozygous c.393dupA frameshift mutation in the NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) Fe-S protein 4 (NDUFS4) gene. The carrier frequency of this mutation was estimated in >1,300 Hutterite individuals to be 1 in 27. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Identification of genes for childhood heritable diseases.

Genes causing rare heritable childhood diseases are being discovered at an accelerating pace driven by the decreasing cost and increasing accessibility of next-generation DNA sequencing combined with the maturation of strategies for successful gene identification. The findings are shedding light on the biological mechanisms of childhood disease and broadening the phenotypic spectrum of many clinical syndromes. Still, thousands of childhood disease genes remain to be identified, and given their increasing rarity, this will require large-scale collaboration that includes mechanisms for sharing phenotypic and genotypic data sets. Nonetheless, genomic technologies are poised for widespread translation to clinical practice for the benefit of children and families living with these rare diseases.

Metaphyseal dysplasia with maxillary hypoplasia and brachydactyly is caused by a duplication in RUNX2.

Metaphyseal dysplasia with maxillary hypoplasia and brachydactyly (MDMHB) is an autosomal-dominant bone dysplasia characterized by metaphyseal flaring of long bones, enlargement of the medial halves of the clavicles, maxillary hypoplasia, variable brachydactyly, and dystrophic teeth. We performed genome-wide SNP genotyping in five affected and four unaffected members of an extended family with MDMHB. Analysis for copy-number variations revealed that a 105 kb duplication within RUNX2 segregated with the MDMHB phenotype in a region with maximum linkage. Real-time PCR for copy-number variation in genomic DNA in eight samples, as well as sequence analysis of fibroblast cDNA from one subject with MDMHB confirmed that affected family members were heterozygous for the presence of an intragenic duplication encompassing exons 3 to 5 of RUNX2. These three exons code for the Q/A domain and the functionally essential DNA-binding runt domain of RUNX2. Transfection studies with murine Runx2 cDNA showed that cellular levels of mutated RUNX2 were markedly higher than those of wild-type RUNX2, suggesting that the RUNX2 duplication found in individuals with MDMHB leads to a gain of function. Until now, only loss-of-function mutations have been detected in RUNX2; the present report associates an apparent gain-of-function alteration of RUNX2 function with a distinct rare disease.

Mutations in PIK3R1 cause SHORT syndrome.

SHORT syndrome is a rare, multisystem disease characterized by short stature, anterior-chamber eye anomalies, characteristic facial features, lipodystrophy, hernias, hyperextensibility, and delayed dentition. As part of the FORGE (Finding of Rare Disease Genes) Canada Consortium, we studied individuals with clinical features of SHORT syndrome to identify the genetic etiology of this rare disease. Whole-exome sequencing in a family trio of an affected child and unaffected parents identified a de novo frameshift insertion, c.1906_1907insC (p.Asn636Thrfs*18), in exon 14 of PIK3R1. Heterozygous mutations in exon 14 of PIK3R1 were subsequently identified by Sanger sequencing in three additional affected individuals and two affected family members. One of these mutations, c.1945C>T (p.Arg649Trp), was confirmed to be a de novo mutation in one affected individual and was also identified and shown to segregate with the phenotype in an unrelated family. The other mutation, a de novo truncating mutation (c.1971T>G [p.Tyr657*]), was identified in another affected individual. PIK3R1 is involved in the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) signaling cascade and, as such, plays an important role in cell growth, proliferation, and survival. Functional studies on lymphoblastoid cells with the PIK3R1 c.1906_1907insC mutation showed decreased phosphorylation of the downstream S6 target of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. Our findings show that PIK3R1 mutations are the major cause of SHORT syndrome and suggest that the molecular mechanism of disease might involve downregulation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway.

A novel mutation in two Hmong families broadens the range of STRA6-related malformations to include contractures and camptodactyly.

PDAC (also termed Matthew Wood) syndrome is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder characterized by pulmonary hypoplasia/aplasia, diaphragmatic defects, bilateral anophthalmia, and cardiac malformations. The disorder is caused by mutations in STRA6, an important regulator of vitamin A and retinoic acid metabolism. We describe six cases from four families of Hmong ancestry, seen over a 30 years period in California. These include: (i) consanguineous siblings with a combination of bilateral anophthalmia, diaphragmatic abnormalities, truncus arteriosus, and/or pulmonary agenesis/hypoplasia; (ii) a singleton fetus with bilateral anophthalmia, pulmonary agenesis, cardiac malformation, and renal hypoplasia; (iii) a sibling pair with a combination of antenatal contractures, camptodactyly, fused palpebral fissures, pulmonary agenesis, and/or truncus arteriosus; (iv) a fetus with bilateral anophthalmia, bushy eyebrows, pulmonary agenesis, heart malformation, and abnormal hand positioning. The phenotypic spectrum of PDAC syndrome has until now not included contractures or camptodactyly. Sequencing of STRA6 in unrelated members of families three and four identified a novel, shared homozygous splice site alteration (c.113 + 3_4delAA) that is predicted to be pathogenic. We hypothesize this may represent a unique disease allele in the Hmong. We also provide a focused review of all published PDAC syndrome cases with confirmed or inferred STRA6 mutations, illustrating the phenotypic and molecular variability that characterizes this disorder.

Mutations in the enzyme glutathione peroxidase 4 cause Sedaghatian-type spondylometaphyseal dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: Sedaghatian-type spondylometaphyseal dysplasia (SSMD) is a neonatal lethal form of spondylometaphyseal dysplasia characterised by severe metaphyseal chondrodysplasia with mild limb shortening, platyspondyly, cardiac conduction defects, and central nervous system abnormalities. As part of the FORGE Canada Consortium we studied two unrelated families to identify the genetic aetiology of this rare disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Whole exome sequencing of a child affected with SSMD and her unaffected parents identified two rare variants in GPX4. The first (c.587+5G>A) was inherited from the mother, and the second (c.588-8_588-4del) was de novo (NM_001039848.1); both were predicted to impact splicing of GPX4. In vitro studies confirmed the mutations spliced out part of exon 4 and skipped exon 5, respectively, with both resulting in a frameshift and premature truncation of GPX4. Subsequently, a second child with SSMD was identified; although DNA from the child was not available, the two unaffected parents were found by Sanger sequencing to each carry the same heterozygous stop mutation in exon 3 of GPX4, c.381C>A, p.Tyr127* (NM_001039848.1). CONCLUSIONS: Our identification of truncating mutations in GPX4 in two families affected with SSMD supports the pathogenic role of mutated GPX4 in this very rare disease. GPX4 is a member of the glutathione peroxidase family of antioxidant defence enzymes and protects cells against membrane lipid peroxidation. GPX4 is essential for early embryo development, regulating anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic activities. Our findings highlight the importance of this enzyme in development of the cardiac, nervous, and skeletal systems.

Exome sequencing as a diagnostic tool for pediatric-onset ataxia.

Ataxia demonstrates substantial phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity. We set out to determine the diagnostic yield of exome sequencing in pediatric patients with ataxia without a molecular diagnosis after standard-of-care assessment in Canada. FORGE (Finding Of Rare disease GEnes) Canada is a nation-wide project focused on identifying novel disease genes for rare pediatric diseases using whole-exome sequencing. We retrospectively selected all FORGE Canada projects that included cerebellar ataxia as a feature. We identified 28 such families and a molecular diagnosis was made in 13; a success rate of 46%. In 11 families, we identified mutations in genes associated with known neurological syndromes and in two we identified novel disease genes. Exome analysis of sib pairs and/or patients born to consanguineous parents was more likely to be successful (9/13) than simplex cases (4/15). Our data suggest that exome sequencing is an effective first line test for pediatric patients with ataxia where a specific single gene is not immediately suspected to be causative.

TMEM237 is mutated in individuals with a Joubert syndrome related disorder and expands the role of the TMEM family at the ciliary transition zone.

Joubert syndrome related disorders (JSRDs) have broad but variable phenotypic overlap with other ciliopathies. The molecular etiology of this overlap is unclear but probably arises from disrupting common functional module components within primary cilia. To identify additional module elements associated with JSRDs, we performed homozygosity mapping followed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) and uncovered mutations in TMEM237 (previously known as ALS2CR4). We show that loss of the mammalian TMEM237, which localizes to the ciliary transition zone (TZ), results in defective ciliogenesis and deregulation of Wnt signaling. Furthermore, disruption of Danio rerio (zebrafish) tmem237 expression produces gastrulation defects consistent with ciliary dysfunction, and Caenorhabditis elegans jbts-14 genetically interacts with nphp-4, encoding another TZ protein, to control basal body-TZ anchoring to the membrane and ciliogenesis. Both mammalian and C. elegans TMEM237/JBTS-14 require RPGRIP1L/MKS5 for proper TZ localization, and we demonstrate additional functional interactions between C. elegans JBTS-14 and MKS-2/TMEM216, MKSR-1/B9D1, and MKSR-2/B9D2. Collectively, our findings integrate TMEM237/JBTS-14 in a complex interaction network of TZ-associated proteins and reveal a growing contribution of a TZ functional module to the spectrum of ciliopathy phenotypes.

Compound heterozygous mutations in glycyl-tRNA synthetase are a proposed cause of systemic mitochondrial disease.

BACKGROUND: Glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GARS) is an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (ARS) that links the amino acid glycine to its corresponding tRNA prior to protein translation and is one of three bifunctional ARS that are active within both the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Dominant mutations in GARS cause rare forms of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and distal spinal muscular atrophy. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a 12-year old girl who presented with clinical and biochemical features of a systemic mitochondrial disease including exercise-induced myalgia, non-compaction cardiomyopathy, persistent elevation of blood lactate and alanine and MRI evidence of mild periventricular leukomalacia. Using exome sequencing she was found to harbor compound heterozygous mutations within the glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GARS) gene; c.1904C > T; p.Ser635Leu and c.1787G > A; p.Arg596Gln. Each mutation occurred at a highly conserved site within the anticodon binding domain. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that recessive mutations in GARS may cause systemic mitochondrial disease. This phenotype is distinct from patients with previously reported dominant mutations in this gene, thereby expanding the spectrum of disease associated with GARS dysregulation.

Whole-exome sequencing in an individual with severe global developmental delay and intractable epilepsy identifies a novel, de novo GRIN2A mutation.

We present a 4-year-old girl with profound global developmental delay and refractory epilepsy characterized by multiple seizure types (partial complex with secondary generalization, tonic, myoclonic, and atypical absence). Her seizure semiology did not fit within a specific epileptic syndrome. Despite a broad metabolic and genetic workup, a diagnosis was not forthcoming. Whole-exome sequencing with a trio analysis (affected child compared to unaffected parents) was performed and identified a novel de novo missense mutation in GRIN2A, c.2449A>G, p.Met817Val, as the likely cause of the refractory epilepsy and global developmental delay. GRIN2A encodes a subunit of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor that mediates excitatory transmission in the central nervous system. A significant reduction in the frequency and the duration of her seizures was observed after the addition of topiramate over a 10-month period. Further prospective studies in additional patients with mutations in GRIN2A will be required to optimize seizure management for this rare disorder. This report expands the current phenotype associated with GRIN2A mutations.

The utility of exome sequencing for genetic diagnosis in a familial microcephaly epilepsy syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Despite remarkable advances in genetic testing, many adults with syndromic epilepsy remain without a molecular diagnosis. The challenge in providing genetic testing for this patient population lies in the extensive genetic heterogeneity associated with epilepsy. Even for the subset of epilepsy patients that present with a defining feature, such as microcephaly, the number of possible genes that would require interrogation by Sanger sequencing is extensive and often prohibitively expensive. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a family of French Canadian descent with four adult children affected with severe intellectual disability, epilepsy and microcephaly born to consanguineous parents and evaluated by the Genetics Service to provide informed genetic counseling to unaffected family members regarding possible recurrence risks. We used whole-exome sequencing (WES) of DNA from one affected sibling as a first-line diagnostic tool and compared the prioritization of variants using two strategies: 1) focusing on genes with homozygous variants; and, 2) focusing on genes associated with microcephaly. Both approaches prioritized the same homozygous novel frameshift mutation (p.Arg608Serfs*26) in WDR62, a gene known to cause autosomal recessive primary microcephaly. Sanger sequencing confirmed the presence of the homozygous mutation in the other three affected siblings. CONCLUSIONS: WES and subsequent filtering of the rare variants in a single affected family member led to the rapid and cost-effective identification of a novel homozygous frameshift mutation in WDR62, thereby explaining the severe neurodevelopmental disorder in this family and facilitating genetic counseling. Our findings support WES as an effective first-line diagnostic tool in families presenting with rare genetically heterogeneous neurological disorders.

Novel 25 kb Deletion of MERTK Causes Retinitis Pigmentosa With Severe Progression.

Purpose: Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) describes a complex group of inherited retinal dystrophies with almost 300 reported genes and loci. We investigated the genetic etiology of autosomal recessive RP (arRP) in a large kindred with 5 affected family members, who reside on the island of Newfoundland, Canada. Methods: Genetic linkage analysis was performed on 12 family members (Infinium HumanOmni2.5-8 BeadChip). Whole exome sequencing analysis (Illumina HiSeq) was performed on one affected individual. A custom pipeline was applied to call, annotate, and filter variants. FishingCNV was used to scan the exome for rare copy number variants (CNVs). Candidate CNVs subsequently were visualized from microarray data (CNVPartition v.3.1.6.). MERTK breakpoints were mapped and familial cosegregation was tested using Sanger Sequencing. Results: We found strong evidence of linkage to a locus on chromosome 2 (logarithm of the odds [LOD] 4.89 [θ = 0]), at an interval encompassing the MERTK gene. Whole exome sequencing did not uncover candidate point mutations in MERTK, or other known RP genes. Subsequently, CNV analysis of the exome data and breakpoint mapping revealed a 25,218 bp deletion of MERTK, encompassing exons 6 to 8, with breakpoints in introns 5 (chr2:112,725,292) and 8 (chr2:112,750,421). A 48 bp insertion sequence was buried within the breakpoint; 18 bps shared homology to MIR4435-2HG and LINC00152, and 30 bp mapped to MERTK. The deletion cosegregated with arRP in the family. Conclusions: This study describes the molecular and clinical characterization of an arRP family segregating a novel 25 kb deletion of MERTK. These findings may assist clinicians in providing a diagnosis for other unsolved RP cases.

Severe Neonatal Presentation of Mitochondrial Citrate Carrier (SLC25A1) Deficiency.

Mutations of the mitochondrial citrate carrier (CIC) SLC25A1 cause combined D-2- and L-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria (DL-2HGA; OMIM #615182), a neurometabolic disorder characterized by developmental delay, hypotonia, and seizures. Here, we describe the female child of consanguineous parents who presented neonatally with lactic acidosis, periventricular frontal lobe cysts, facial dysmorphism, recurrent apneic episodes, and deficient complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) activity in skeletal muscle. Exome sequencing revealed a homozygous SLC25A1 missense mutation [NM_005984.4: c.593G>A; p.(Arg198His)] of a ubiquitously conserved arginine residue putatively situated within the substrate-binding site I of CIC. Retrospective review of the patient's organic acids confirmed the D- and L-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria typical of DL-2HGA to be present, although this was not appreciated on initial presentation. Cultured patient skin fibroblasts showed reduced survival in culture, diminished mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity, increased glycolytic flux, and normal mitochondrial bulk, inner membrane potential, and network morphology. Neither cell survival nor cellular respiratory parameters were improved by citrate supplementation, although oral citrate supplementation did coincide with amelioration of lactic acidosis and apneic attacks in the patient. This is the fifth clinical report of CIC deficiency to date. The clinical features in our patient suggest that this disorder, which can potentially be recognized either by molecular means or based on its characteristic organic aciduria, should be considered in the differential diagnosis of pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency and respiratory chain disorders. One-Sentence Summary A novel homozygous missense substitution in SLC25A1 was identified in a neonate presenting with lactic acidosis, intracerebral cysts, and an apparent mitochondrial complex IV defect in muscle.

Congenital Visual Impairment and Progressive Microcephaly Due to Lysyl-Transfer Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Synthetase (KARS) Mutations: The Expanding Phenotype of Aminoacyl-Transfer RNA Synthetase Mutations in Human Disease.

Aminoacyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthetases (ARSs) are a group of enzymes required for the first step of protein translation. Each aminoacyl-transfer RNA synthetase links a specific amino acid to its corresponding transfer RNA component within the cytoplasm, mitochondria, or both. Mutations in ARSs have been linked to a growing number of diseases. Lysyl-transfer RNA synthetase (KARS) links the amino acid lysine to its cognate transfer RNA. We report 2 siblings with severe infantile visual loss, progressive microcephaly, developmental delay, seizures, and abnormal subcortical white matter. Exome sequencing identified mutations within the KARS gene (NM_005548.2):c.1312C>T; p.Arg438Trp and c.1573G>A; p.Glu525Lys occurring within a highly conserved region of the catalytic domain. Our patients' phenotype is remarkably similar to a phenotype recently reported in glutaminyl-transfer RNA synthetase (QARS), another bifunctional ARS gene. This finding expands the phenotypic spectrum associated with mutations in KARS and draws attention to aminoacyl-transfer RNA synthetase as a group of enzymes that are increasingly being implicated in human disease.

Homozygous nonsense mutation in SYNJ1 associated with intractable epilepsy and tau pathology.

The tauopathies are a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by the shared presence of tau aggregates and neurofibrillary tangles within the central nervous system. Here, we present a child with a severe neurodegenerative disorder characterized by intractable seizures and significant tau-immunoreactive neurofibrillary degeneration localized predominantly to the substantia nigra on neuropathology with absence of beta-amyloid plaques and Lewy or Pick bodies. Whole-exome sequencing identified a homozygous truncating mutation in Synaptojanin 1 (SYNJ1). Quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blot experiments demonstrated diminished SYNJ1 messenger RNA and protein. Knockout Synj1(-/-) mice have convulsions and die early in life. More recently, homozygous missense mutations have been reported in 2 families with early-onset parkinsonism and seizures. Our findings broaden the spectrum of disease associated with alteration of SYNJ1 and further implicate defects in synaptic vesicle recycling in the tauopathies.