PD-L1 expression predicts efficacy in the phase II SPiReL trial with MVP-S, pembrolizumab, and low-dose CPA in R/R DLBCL.

BACKGROUND: Patients with relapsed/refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (R/R DLBCL) have limited treatment options. METHODS: R/R DLBCL patients, who were mostly ineligible for ASCT due to age or comorbidities, were treated with maveropepimut-S (MVP-S, previously DPX-Survivac) a survivin directed T cell educating therapy, pembrolizumab, and intermittent low-dose cyclophosphamide. FINDINGS: We identified, using univariate analysis, a subset of patients with enhanced ORR, PFS and DOR. Patients with baseline CD20+/PD-L1 expression had an ORR of 46% (6/13) and the disease control rate was 10/13 (77%). The PFS and OS of the positive CD20+/PD-L1 patients were 7.1 months and 17.4 months, whereas in the intent-to-treat (ITT) population of 25 enrolled patients, the ORR was 28% (7/25), median PFS and OS were 4.2 months and 10.1 months respectively. A total of 6/7 clinical responders occurred in CD20+/PD-L1 patients. The regimen was well-tolerated, requiring only minor dose modifications and one discontinuation. Grade 1 or 2 injection site reactions occurred in 14/25, (56%). Statistically significant associations were also seen between PFS and; injection site reactions; and ELISpot response to survivin peptides, both identifying the mechanistic importance of specific immune responses to survivin. INTERPRETATION: This immunotherapy combination was found to be active and safe in this clinically challenging patient population.

Serum-derived carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) activates fibroblasts to induce a local re-modeling of the extracellular matrix that favors the engraftment of CEA-expressing tumor cells.

Elevated levels of the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA; CEACAM5) in the serum of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients represent a clinical biomarker that correlates with disease recurrence. However, a mechanistic role for soluble CEA (sCEA) in tumor progression and metastasis remains to be established. In our study, we report that sCEA acts as a paracrine factor, activating human fibroblasts by signaling through both the STAT3 and AKT1-mTORC1 pathways, promoting their transition to a cancer-associated fibroblast (CaF) phenotype. sCEA-activated fibroblasts express and secrete higher levels of fibronectin, including cellular EDA+ -fibronectin (Fn-EDA) that selectively promote the implantation and adherence of CEA-expressing cancer cells. Immunohistochemical analyses of liver tissues derived from CRC patients with elevated levels of sCEA reveal that the expression of cellular Fn-EDA co-registers with CEA-expressing liver metastases. Taken together, these findings indicate a direct role for sCEA as a human fibroblast activation factor, in priming target tissues for the engraftment of CEA-expressing cancer cells, through the differentiation of tissue-resident fibroblasts, resulting in a local change in composition of the extracellular matrix.

Management of newly diagnosed high-risk and intermediate-risk follicular lymphoma with 90 Y ibritumomab tiuxetan in a phase II study.

Five-year overall survival for high-risk Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index follicular lymphoma is only approximately 50% compared with 90% for low risk. To evaluate an approach to improve upon this poor outcome, we completed an exploratory phase II trial of intensified treatment for patients with intermediate and high-risk follicular lymphoma. Front-line treatment with chemo-immunotherapy consisting of rituximab, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin, and prednisone was followed by radio- immunotherapy with 90-Yttrium ibritumomab tiuxetan consolidation, and 2 years of rituximab maintenance. The 5-year overall survival for intermediate and high-risk patients was 88% and 83%, respectively. Of 33 enrolled patients, 3 were off study before receiving radio-immunotherapy. Three months post radio-immunotherapy, 28/33 (85%) patients had achieved complete response including 6 patients who had only a partial response to chemo-immunotherapy and converted to complete response after radio-immunotherapy. The 5-year progression-free survival for intermediate and high risk was 79% and 58%, respectively. Nine of 19 patients with molecular markers patients remain in molecular and clinical complete remission with a median follow-up of 48 months (range 3-84 months). Post radio-immunotherapy, hematologic toxicities were mostly grade 1 and 2. However, asymptomatic grade 3 or 4 thrombocytopenia and neutropenia occurred in 11%-36% and 10%-24% of patients, respectively. Myelodysplastic syndrome occurred in 1 patient 4 years post treatment. Whereas many patients had prolonged B-cell reduction and low immunoglobulin levels post treatment, previous immunities to rubella were maintained. More aggressive upfront approaches such as this may benefit higher risk follicular lymphoma, but confirmatory trials are required. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01446562.

Survival of patients with transformed lymphoma in the rituximab era.

In the pre-rituximab era, transformation of indolent B-cell lymphoma to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) was associated with an extremely poor outcome and a median post-transformation survival ranging from 1 to 2 years. We evaluated the impact of rituximab-cyclophosphamide, adriamycin, vincristine, prednisone (R-CHOP) on the survival outcomes of transformed lymphoma compared with de novo DLBCL. Between 2002 and 2010, 317 DLBCL patients who were consecutively diagnosed and treated with R-CHOP were identified at our institution. Patients with transformed lymphoma were included if they had not previously received R-CHOP. Patient characteristics, treatment, and outcome data were retrospectively collected. Sixty patients (19 %) had transformed lymphoma of which 37 (62 %) had transformed from follicular lymphoma, 50 (83 %) were chemotherapy naïve, and 58 (96 %) were rituximab naïve at the time of treatment. With a median follow-up of 31.4 months, 231 patients achieved either complete response or complete response unconfirmed (73 %) with no significant difference between de novo DLBCL (n = 192, 75 %) and the transformed group (n = 39, 65 %) (P = 0.25). Six patients (15 %) relapsed in the transformed group at a median time to relapse of 29.3 months. The 2-year and 5-year overall survivals for all patients were 82 and 72 %, respectively. The overall and progression-free survivals for transformed lymphoma and de novo DLBCL were not statistically different (P = 0.45 and P = 0.38, respectively). With R-CHOP chemotherapy, the prognosis of transformed lymphoma in patients with minimal chemotherapy exposure for indolent disease is similar to that of de novo DLBCL.

Intensity of survivin expression linked to features of aggressive relapsed/refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

SPiReL is a phase II clinical trial evaluating combination immunotherapy, pembrolizumab and cyclophosphamide, with maveropepimut-S, in survivin-expressing relapsed/refractory (R/R) Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL). We describe baseline tumor survivin expression and associations with clinico-pathological variables in 25 participants. The median number of survivin-expressing cells was 99%, and the intensity of survivin expression within tumors was heterogeneous by semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry assessment. Tumors with higher numbers of cells expressing 2+/3+ survivin were associated with characteristics of poor outcome, (Lactate dehydrogenase and cell-of-origin). Greater total baseline tumor area was associated with lower proportions of 1+ cells and greater proportions of 2+/3+ cells. High intensity survivin expression is associated with aggressive clinical features supporting a pathobiological role in R/R DLBCL. Future prognostic models incorporating survivin as a clinical biomarker require assessment of intensity, overall expression and should include potential threshold effects of survivin in DLBCL pathobiology.

A short course of neoadjuvant IRX-2 induces changes in peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

OBJECTIVE: IRX-2, a primary cell-derived biologic with pleotropic immune activity, was shown to induce increased lymphocyte infiltrations into the tumor of patients with head and neck squamous cell cancer (HNSCC) after 10 days of neoadjuvant therapy (Berinstein et al. 2011). In the same patients enrolled in the Phase II study, peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets were monitored pre- and post-IRX-2 therapy to evaluate changes induced by IRX-2. METHODS: Absolute lymphocyte numbers were determined in whole blood using the TetraONE System. Lymphocytes were further separated on Ficoll-Hypaque gradients and evaluated by multiparameter flow cytometry. Lymphocyte numbers, including regulatory T cells (Treg) and naïve, memory and effector T cells, were compared in pre- and post-therapy specimens. RESULTS: Total lymphocyte numbers remained unchanged after IRX-2 therapy. Significant changes occurred in numbers of circulating B cells and NKT cells, which decreased following IRX-2 therapy. The frequency of circulating Treg (CD4(+)CD25(high)) remained unaltered (e.g., 6.7 ± 0.6% vs. 7.5 ± 0.8%; means ± SEM) as was the CD8(+)/Treg ratio (6.6 before and 6.7 after IRX-2 therapy). The mean absolute number of CD3(+)CD45RA(+)CCR7(+) (naïve) T cells was decreased after IRX-2 therapy but numbers of total memory (i.e., central and peripheral) and terminally differentiated T cells were unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: IRX-2-mediated reductions in B and NKT cell numbers in the blood suggest a redistribution of these cells to tissues. A decrease in naïve T cells implies their up-regulated differentiation to memory T cells. Unchanged Treg numbers after IRX-2 therapy indicate that IRX-2 does not expand this compartment, potentially benefiting anti-tumor immune responses.

Increased lymphocyte infiltration in patients with head and neck cancer treated with the IRX-2 immunotherapy regimen.

Twenty-seven subjects with squamous cell cancer of the head and neck received the neoadjuvant IRX-2 immunotherapy regimen prior to surgery in a Phase 2 trial. Pretreatment tumor biopsies were compared with the primary tumor surgical specimens for lymphocyte infiltration, necrosis and fibrosis, using hematoxylin and eosin stain and immunohistochemistry in 25 subjects. Sections were examined by three pathologists. Relative to pretreatment biopsies, increases in lymphocyte infiltration (LI) were seen using H and E or immunohistochemistry. CD3+ CD4+ T cells and CD20+ B cells were primarily found in the peritumoral stroma and CD3+ CD8+ T cells and CD68+ macrophages were mainly intratumoral. LI in the surgical specimens were associated with reductions in the primary tumor size. Improved survival at 5 years was correlated with high overall LI in the tumor specimens. Neoadjuvant IRX-2 immunotherapy regimen may restore immune responsiveness presumably by mobilizing tumor infiltrating effector lymphocytes and macrophages into the tumor.

First-in-man application of a novel therapeutic cancer vaccine formulation with the capacity to induce multi-functional T cell responses in ovarian, breast and prostate cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: DepoVax is a novel non-emulsion depot-forming vaccine platform with the capacity to significantly enhance the immunogenicity of peptide cancer antigens. Naturally processed HLA-A2 restricted peptides presented by breast, ovarian and prostate cancer cells were used as antigens to create a therapeutic cancer vaccine, DPX-0907. METHODS: A phase I clinical study was designed to examine the safety and immune activating potential of DPX-0907 in advanced stage breast, ovarian and prostate cancer patients. A total of 23 late stage cancer patients were recruited and were divided into two dose/volume cohorts in a three immunization protocol. RESULTS: DPX-0907 was shown to be safe with injection site reactions being the most commonly reported adverse event. All breast cancer patients (3/3), most of ovarian (5/6) and one third of prostate (3/9) cancer patients exhibited detectable immune responses, resulting in a 61% immunological response rate. Immune responses were generally observed in patients with better disease control after their last prior treatment. Antigen-specific responses were detected in 73% of immune responders (44% of evaluable patients) after the first vaccination. In 83% of immune responders (50% of evaluable patients), peptide-specific T cell responses were detected at ≥2 time points post vaccination with 64% of the responders (39% of evaluable patients) showing evidence of immune persistence. Immune monitoring also demonstrated the generation of antigen-specific T cell memory with the ability to secrete multiple Type 1 cytokines. CONCLUSIONS: The novel DepoVax formulation promotes multifunctional effector memory responses to peptide-based tumor associated antigens. The data supports the capacity of DPX-0907 to elicit Type-1 biased immune responses, warranting further clinical development of the vaccine. This study underscores the importance of applying vaccines in clinical settings in which patients are more likely to be immune competent. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01095848.

Combination chemotherapy and ALVAC-CEA/B7.1 vaccine in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer.

PURPOSE: The combination of vaccines and chemotherapy holds promise for cancer therapy, but the effect of cytotoxic chemotherapy on vaccine-induced antitumor immunity is unknown. This study was conducted to assess the effects of systemic chemotherapy on ALVAC-CEA/B7.1-induced T-cell immunity in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Patients with metastatic colorectal cancer were treated with fluorouracil, leucovorin, and irinotecan and were also given ALVAC-CEA/B7.1 vaccine with or without tetanus toxoid adjuvant. Eligible patients were randomized to ALVAC followed by chemotherapy and booster vaccination (group 1), ALVAC and tetanus toxoid followed by chemotherapy (group 2), or chemotherapy alone followed by ALVAC in patients without disease progression (group 3). Humoral immune responses were measured by standard ELISA assay, and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)-specific T-cell responses were measured by IFN-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot assay. RESULTS: One hundred eighteen patients were randomized to receive either ALVAC before and concomitantly with chemotherapy (n = 39), ALVAC with tetanus adjuvant before and concomitantly with chemotherapy (n = 40), or chemotherapy followed by ALVAC (n = 39). Serious adverse events were largely gastrointestinal (n = 30) and hematologic (n = 24). Overall, 42 patients (40.4%) showed objective clinical responses. All patients developed antibody responses against ALVAC, but increased anti-CEA antibody titers were detected in only three patients. Increases in CEA-specific T cells were detected in 50%, 37%, and 30% of patients in groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. There were no differences in clinical or immune responses between the treatment groups. CONCLUSION: The combination of ALVAC-CEA/B7.1 vaccine and systemic chemotherapy has an acceptable safety profile in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Systemic chemotherapy did not affect the generation of CEA-specific T-cell responses following vaccination.

Clinical phase I intratumoral administration of two recombinant ALVAC canarypox viruses expressing human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor or interleukin-2: the transgene determines the composition of the inflammatory infiltrate.

Immunotherapy employs cytokines for modifying local inflammatory reactions. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) has been shown to activate dendritic cells, macrophages, and granulocytes leading to clinical trials using GM-CSF-based cancer vaccine approaches. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is an important T cell stimulatory cytokine approved as exogenous antitumor agent. The ALVAC viral vector system uses a recombinant canarypox virus for local gene expression. We report a phase I clinical trial using intratumoral administration of ALVAC GM-CSF or ALVAC IL-2 in skin metastases of melanoma or leiomyosarcoma. ALVAC GM-CSF and ALVAC IL-2 were injected at 107.12 and 106.92, 50% cell culture infectious dose in eight metastases with acceptable tolerability. Local and systemic inflammatory reactions were observed. The transgene determined the local infiltrate: GM-CSF induced monocyte and macrophage enrichment of the peritumoral inflammatory infiltrate, whereas IL-2 increased local T lymphocytes. Stable disease of injected lesions was seen after ALVAC GM-CSF application, whereas ALVAC IL-2 treatment led to partial regression in three out of eight injected tumors, accompanied by decreased expression of melanocytic antigens. Local GM-CSF expression could be induced. In summary, ALVAC GM-CSF and ALVAC IL-2 injections are safe and can mediate local biologic and immunologic effects.

Increased immune infiltration and chemokine receptor expression in head and neck epithelial tumors after neoadjuvant immunotherapy with the IRX-2 regimen.

IRX-2 is an injectable cancer immunotherapy composed of cytokines purified from stimulated normal-donor peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In a phase 2a trial (n = 27), neoadjuvant IRX-2 significantly increased lymphocyte infiltration (LI) into resected head and neck tumors and was associated with changes in fibrosis and necrosis. Event-free survival was 65% at 2 years, and overall survival 65% at 5 years. Overall survival was longer for patients with LI greater versus lower than the median. This substudy of the mechanisms responsible for the increase in LI with neoadjuvant IRX-2 employed multiplex immunohistochemistry (IHC) and transcriptome analysis to interrogate matched pre- and post-treatment tumor specimens from 7 available phase 2a trial patients. Multiplex IHC showed substantial increases in CD68-expressing cells (5 patients), T-cell density (4 patients), and PDL1 mean fluorescent intensity (4 patients). Consistent with IRX-2 activation of multiple immune cells, transcriptome analysis showed mean increases in expression of genes associated with NK cells, B cells, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and dendritic cells, but not of genes associated with neutrophils. There were increases in mean expression of genes for most immune subsets, most markedly (2- to 3-fold) for B cells and dendritic cells. Mean increases in gene expression for chemokines suggest that tumor LI may be driven in part by IRX-2-induced production of chemo-attractants. Upregulation of checkpoint genes including PDL1 and CTLA4 along with increased T-cell infiltration suggests a functional antitumor immune response such that the efficacy of IRX-2 may be enhanced by combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

IRX-2 natural cytokine biologic for immunotherapy in patients with head and neck cancers.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an immunosuppressive malignancy characterized by tumor-driven immune-system abnormalities that contribute to disease progression. For patients with surgically resectable HNSCC, treatment is often curative surgery followed by irradiation or chemoradiation in high-risk settings to reduce the risk of recurrence. Poor survival and considerable morbidity of current treatments suggest the need for new therapeutic modalities that can improve outcomes. Defects in antitumor immunity of HNSCC patients include suppressed dendritic cell (DC) maturation, deficient antigen-presenting cell function, compromised natural killer (NK)-cell cytotoxicity, increased apoptosis of activated T lymphocytes, and impaired immune-cell migration to tumor sites. Strategies for relieving immunosuppression and restoring antitumor immune functions could benefit HNSCC patients. IRX-2 is a primary cell-derived biologic consisting of physiologic levels of T-helper type 1 cytokines produced by stimulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells of normal donors with phytohemagglutinin. The primary active components in IRX-2 are IL2, IL1ß, IFNγ, and TNFα. In vitro, IRX-2 acts on multiple immune-system cell types, including DCs, T cells, and NK cells, to overcome tumor-mediated immunosuppression. In clinical settings, IRX-2 is administered as part of a 21-day neoadjuvant regimen, which includes additional pharmacologic agents (low-dose cyclophosphamide, indomethacin, and zinc) to promote anticancer immunoresponses. In a Phase IIA trial in 27 patients with surgically resectable, previously untreated HNSCC, neoadjuvant IRX-2 increased infiltration of T cells, B cells, and DCs into tumors and was associated with radiological reductions in tumor size. Event-free survival was 64% at 2 years, and overall 5-year survival was 65%. Follow-up and data analysis are under way in the multicenter, randomized, Phase IIB INSPIRE trial evaluating the IRX-2 regimen as a stand-alone therapy for activating the immune system to recognize and attack tumors.

Association of clinical status of follicular lymphoma patients after autologous stem cell transplant and quantitative assessment of lymphoma in blood and bone marrow as measured by SYBR Green I polymerase chain reaction.

Molecular remission in the autograft and bone marrow after transplant are predictive of durable clinical remission in relapsed follicular lymphoma. Thus, a simple reliable method to quantify minimal residual disease (MRD) would improve prognostication in these patients. Fluorescent hybridization probes have been used in real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RQ-PCR) to monitor MRD with a reproducible sensitivity of 0.01%; however, these techniques are expensive and require additional experiments to examine clonality. We describe a SYBR Green I detection method that is more universal, checks clonal identity, yields the same sensitivity for monitoring MRD, and is more economically attractive. Using this method to follow 14 follicular lymphoma patients treated with autologous stem cell transplantation, molecular markers were successfully defined for 12 patients. Median contamination of stem-cell grafts was 0.1% (range, 0 to 13%). Six patients with measurable graft contamination became PCR-negative in blood and bone marrow within 12 months after autologous stem cell transplantation. Three patients free of disease progression (median follow-up of 75 months) are in molecular remission. Increasing fractions of RQ-PCR-positive blood and bone marrow cells reliably predicted morphological and clinical relapse. In one case, both clinical relapse and spontaneous regression were reflected by changes in MRD levels. Thus, our RQ-PCR method reproducibly distinguishes different levels of MRD.

Principles of maintenance therapy.

Although follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma may respond well to induction therapy, almost all patients will eventually relapse. To reduce the frequency of relapses and prolong disease-free intervals, maintenance treatment may be given to patients who respond or have stable disease after induction therapy. Maintenance treatment is given at regular intervals over prolonged periods in patients who may be asymptomatic, and so it is important that administration is simple, toxicity is minimal and that there is clear evidence of efficacy. The monoclonal antibody rituximab has many characteristics essential for a maintenance therapy: it is both effective and very well tolerated, and can maintain active concentrations in the blood with intervals of several months between administrations, enabling patients to continue with normal life while on maintenance therapy. Randomized trials of rituximab maintenance therapy have confirmed that remissions can be prolonged, and in one randomized trial, early results suggest a survival benefit. The optimal schedule for maintenance therapy has not yet been defined.

Anti-PD-1 increases the clonality and activity of tumor infiltrating antigen specific T cells induced by a potent immune therapy consisting of vaccine and metronomic cyclophosphamide.

BACKGROUND: Future cancer immunotherapies will combine multiple treatments to generate functional immune responses to cancer antigens through synergistic, multi-modal mechanisms. In this study we explored the combination of three distinct immunotherapies: a class I restricted peptide-based cancer vaccine, metronomic cyclophosphamide (mCPA) and anti-PD-1 treatment in a murine tumor model expressing HPV16 E7 (C3). METHODS: Mice were implanted with C3 tumors subcutaneously. Tumor bearing mice were treated with mCPA (20 mg/kg/day PO) for seven continuous days on alternating weeks, vaccinated with HPV16 E749-57 peptide antigen formulated in the DepoVax (DPX) adjuvanting platform every second week, and administered anti-PD-1 (200 µg/dose IP) after each vaccination. Efficacy was measured by following tumor growth and survival. Immunogenicity was measured by IFN-γ ELISpot of spleen, vaccine draining lymph nodes and tumor draining lymph nodes. Tumor infiltration was measured by flow cytometry for CD8α+ peptide-specific T cells and RT-qPCR for cytotoxic proteins. The clonality of tumor infiltrating T cells was measured by TCRß sequencing using genomic DNA. RESULTS: Untreated C3 tumors had low expression of PD-L1 in vivo and anti-PD-1 therapy alone provided no protection from tumor growth. Treatment with DPX/mCPA could delay tumor growth, and tri-therapy with DPX/mCPA/anti-PD-1 provided long-term control of tumors. We found that treatment with DPX/mCPA/anti-PD-1 enhanced systemic antigen-specific immune responses detected in the spleen as determined by IFN-γ ELISpot compared to those in the DPX/mCPA group, but immune responses in tumor-draining lymph nodes were not increased. Although no increases in antigen-specific CD8α+ TILs could be detected, there was a trend for increased expression of cytotoxic genes within the tumor microenvironment as well as an increase in clonality in mice treated with DPX/mCPA/anti-PD-1 compared to those with anti-PD-1 alone or DPX/mCPA. Using a library of antigen-specific CD8α+ T cell clones, we found that antigen-specific clones were more frequently expanded in the DPX/mCPA/anti-PD-1 treated group. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate how the efficacy of anti-PD-1 may be improved by combination with a potent and targeted T cell activating immune therapy.

Immunostimulatory Activity of the Cytokine-Based Biologic, IRX-2, on Human Papillomavirus-Exposed Langerhans Cells.

Langerhans cells (LCs) are the antigen-presenting cells of the epithelial layer and are responsible for initiating immune responses against skin and mucosa-invading viruses. Human papillomavirus (HPV)-mediated suppression of LC function is a crucial mechanism of HPV immune evasion, which can lead to persistent infection and development of several human cancers, including cervical, anal, and head and neck cancers. The cell-derived cytokine-based biologic, IRX-2, consists of multiple well-defined cytokines and is broadly active on various immune cell subsets. In this study, we investigated primary human LC activation after exposure to HPV16, followed by treatment with IRX-2 in vitro, and evaluated their subsequent ability to induce HPV16-specific T cells. In contrast to its activity on dendritic cells, HPV16 alone is not sufficient to induce phenotypic and functional activation of LCs. However, IRX-2 induces a significant upregulation of antigen presentation and costimulatory molecules, T helper 1 (Th1)-associated cytokine release, and chemokine-directed migration of LCs pre-exposed to HPV16. Furthermore, LCs treated with IRX-2 after HPV16 exposure induced CD8(+) T-cell responses against specific HLA-A*0201-binding HPV16 T-cell epitopes. The present study suggests that IRX-2 is an attractive immunomodulator for assisting the immune response in eradication of HPV-infected cells, thereby potentially preventing HPV-induced cancers.

Carcinoembryonic antigen as a target for therapeutic anticancer vaccines: a review.

PURPOSE: To describe the features of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) that are important for its use in vaccination approaches and review the clinical experience with therapeutic vaccines targeting CEA. METHODS: A PubMed search was performed on CEA, along with various qualifiers such as cancer vaccines, epitopes, and function. Relevant articles were reviewed. RESULTS: CEA is a member of the immunoglobulin supergene family and may play a role in tumorigenesis. CEA protein is processed and presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins for multiple alleles, including HLA A2, A3, and A24. T lymphocytes from healthy volunteers and cancer patients can recognize the processed epitopes of CEA and can become activated to lyse CEA-expressing tumors. Therapeutic vaccination approaches that have targeted CEA include vaccination with recombinant CEA protein, CEA anti-idiotype antibodies, and dendritic cells pulsed with agonist epitopes of CEA. Humoral responses have predominantly been induced with the first two approaches, whereas CD4 and CD8 responses, disease stabilization, and even objective clinical responses have been seen with the dendritic cell approach. Recently, CEA-poxvirus vectors encoding CEA and costimulatory molecules such as B7.1 have been shown to be safe and to induce increases in the frequency of T-cell precursors that recognize processed epitopes of CEA presented on MHC class 1 molecules. Disease stabilization has been seen in up to 37% of patients treated with these vaccines. CONCLUSION: Tolerance to CEA in patients with cancer can be overcome with several different vaccination approaches, and such vaccinations are safe and immunologically active. Poxvirus-based vaccines can reproducibly generate T-cell responses to CEA and to tumors expressing CEA. Clinical activity has been seen with poxvirus or dendritic cell approaches. Other approaches are also being explored.

What is remission in follicular lymphoma and what is its relevance?

Follicular lymphoma (FL) is a unique disease characterised by a long natural history and responsiveness to many different therapies. We have reviewed the prognostic significance of the quality of both clinical and molecular responses for patients with FL. We have found that, as might be expected, patients who achieve a complete clinical response to treatment have a better prognosis than patients who achieve an incomplete or a partial response. However, unlike aggressive lymphomas, treatments that produce a higher frequency of complete responses do not result in better survival outcomes than treatments that produce lower complete response rates. Recent improvements in technologies have enabled quantitative monitoring of responses at the molecular level and at much higher degrees of sensitivity than can be obtained at the clinical level. Although these data are very heterogeneous and have many limitations, data are emerging that demonstrate that achieving molecular remissions after standard dose chemotherapy, high dose chemotherapy or various immunotherapies may have prognostic significance for patients with FL. With sensitive, quantitative, standardised and reproducible tools for molecular monitoring and with the combination of novel targeted biological therapies, we are approaching an era, where the potential to cure patients with FL is being turned into a reality.

Bcl-2 and c-Myc co-operate in the Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized human B-cell line GM607 but do not confer tumorigenicity.

Eighty-five percent of follicular lymphomas possess a characteristic t(14;18) translocation that results in the deregulated expression of the proto-oncogene BCL-2. BCL-2 overexpression alone is insufficient for full cellular transformation and at least 1 other genetic event is believed to be necessary for follicular lymphoma development. Deregulated c-Myc expression has previously been shown to cooperate with Bcl-2 to transform murine fibroblast cell lines and lead to tumor development in mice. We have developed a human model system to study early transformation in lymphoid cells using immortalized lymphoblastoid cells. We sequentially introduced BCL-2 and c-MYC, 2 proto-oncogenes known to be involved in the transformation of B cells into Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-immortalized human B cells. We show that the c-Myc and Bcl-2 overexpression, together with EBV immortalization were insufficient to cause full cellular transformation as measured by cell proliferation rates, soft agar and tumorigenicity assays. These results show that more than 3 genetic hits (EBV infection, Bcl-2 and c-Myc overexpression) were required for the full cellular transformation of human lymphoblastoid cells. However, subtle changes in cellular proliferation and sensitivity to apoptosis were documented, at non-limiting dilutions. These changes may confer a susceptibility to the modified cells such that they are more susceptible to the acquisition of additional genetic changes and evolve towards a fully transformed state. In addition, the model system developed may be suitable for the identification of further known and novel oncogenic events involved in the full transformation of B cells.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia-reactive T cells during disease progression and after autologous tumor cell vaccines.

PURPOSE: Tumor-reactive T cells were measured in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) because vaccines that increase the activity of these cells might lead to better disease control. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Proliferation and ELISPOT assays (for T cells producing IFN-gamma after stimulation by CD40-activated CLL cells) were used to determine the prevalence of tumor-reactive T cells in 25 CLL patients at various stages of disease progression. The effects of vaccines, composed of autologous-oxidized tumor cells, on both the clinical course and tumor-reactive T-cell numbers were then determined in 2 patients. RESULTS: CLL-reactive T cells were found at frequencies of > or =10(-3) in 6 of 11 patients. Significant proliferation was found in 15 of 25 patients and correlated with clinical stage. The inability to measure CLL-reactive T cells in the remaining patients was not uniformly a result of generalized T-cell dysfunction or defective antigen presentation by CD40-activated CLL cells. CLL-reactive T-cell frequencies increased in response to vaccination with oxidized autologous tumor cells in a patient with preexisting CLL-reactive T cells but not in a patient where tumor-reactive T cells were undetectable in the ELISPOT assay. CONCLUSIONS: Tumor-reactive T cells exist in some CLL patients (mainly during earlier stages of disease) and may potentially mediate therapeutic responses if their numbers and activation states can be sufficiently increased by tumor vaccines.