Glucose turnover and intima media thickness of internal carotid artery in type 2 diabetes offspring.

BACKGROUND: First-degree offspring (OFF) of type 2 diabetic (T2DM) patients bear a approximately 40% lifetime risk of developing T2DM. They are insulin resistant and carry a risk of premature atherosclerosis, the extent of which can be estimated by intima media thickness (IMT) of the carotid artery (CA). Thus, this study examines parameters of glucose and lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity, beta cell function (BCF) and IMT with their interrelationships in middle-aged OFF. MATERIALS AND METHODS: T2DM-OFF (n = 18, 14f/4m, 45.6 +/- 2.1 years, BMI: 26 +/- 1 kg m(-2)) were compared with 18 matching humans without a family history of diabetes (CON; 14f/4m, 44.5 +/- 2.1 years, BMI: 24 +/- 1 kg m(-2); each P > 0.30), all with normal glucose tolerance as tested by three-hour (75 g) oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT). Two-hour hyperinsulinaemic (40 mU min(-1).m(-2))isoglycaemic clamp tests were performed with simultaneous measurement of endogenous glucose (D-[6,6-(2)H(2)]glucose) production (EGP). IMT [internal (ICA), common CA, and bulb] were measured sonographically. BCF was assessed by Adaptation Index (AI). RESULTS: Before and during OGTT, both groups were similar in plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide and free fatty acids (FFA), whereas OFF showed ~30% lower (P < 0.03) fasting plasma triglycerides before OGTT. During hyperinsulinaemic clamps, insulin sensitivity was approximately 38% lower (P < 0.03) in OFF who showed higher plasma FFA (44 +/- 9 micromol L(-1)) than CON (26 +/- 3 micromol L(-1), P < 0.05) after 90 min. EGP was similar in both groups. OFF had 38% (P < 0.007) reduced AI. ICA-IMT was approximately 18% higher in OFF (P < 0.002), but did not correlate with insulin sensitivity. CONCLUSION: The data obtained show middle-aged T2DM-OFF with normal glucose tolerance displaying reduced total insulin sensitivity and impaired beta cell function, which relates to impaired insulin-dependent suppression of plasma FFA and increased ICA-IMT.

Effects of short-term improvement of insulin treatment and glycemia on hepatic glycogen metabolism in type 1 diabetes.

Insufficiently treated type 1 diabetic patients exhibit inappropriate postprandial hyperglycemia and reduction in liver glycogen stores. To examine the effect of acute improvement of metabolic control on hepatic glycogen metabolism, lean young type 1 diabetic (HbA1c 8.8 +/- 0.3%) and matched nondiabetic subjects (HbA1c 5.4 +/- 0.1%) were studied during the course of a day with three isocaloric mixed meals. Hepatic glycogen concentrations were determined noninvasively using in vivo 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Rates of net glycogen synthesis and breakdown were calculated from linear regression of the glycogen concentration time curves from 7:30-10:30 P.M. and from 10:30 P.M. to 8:00 A.M., respectively. The mean plasma glucose concentration was approximately 2.4-fold higher in diabetic than in nondiabetic subjects (13.6 +/- 0.4 vs. 5.8 +/- 0.1 mmol/l, P < 0.001). Rates of net glycogen synthesis and net glycogen breakdown were reduced by approximately 74% (0.11 +/- 0.02 vs. 0.43 +/- 0.04 mmol/l liver/min, P < 0.001) and by approximately 47% (0.10 +/- 0.01 vs. 0.19 +/- 0.01 mmol/l liver/min, P < 0.001) in diabetic patients, respectively. During short-term (24-h) intensified insulin treatment, the mean plasma glucose level was not different between diabetic and nondiabetic subjects (6.4 +/- 0.1 mmol/l). Net glycogen synthesis and breakdown increased by approximately 92% (0.23 +/- 0.04 mmol/l liver/min, P = 0.017) and by approximately 40% (0.14 approximately 0.01 mmol/l liver/min, P = 0.011), respectively. In conclusion, poorly controlled type 1 diabetic patients present with marked reduction in both hepatic glycogen synthesis and breakdown. Both defects in glycogen metabolism are improved but not normalized by short-term restoration of insulinemia and glycemia.

25-Hydroxyvitamin D(3)-1alpha-hydroxylase and vitamin D receptor gene expression in human colonic mucosa is elevated during early cancerogenesis.

Human colorectal cancer cells not only express the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR) but are also endowed with 25-hydroxy-vitamin D(3)-1alpha-hydroxylase activity and therefore are able to produce the specific ligand for the VDR, the hormonally active steroid 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)). In the present study we show by semiquantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) as well as by Western blotting and immunohistochemical methods, that in human large intestinal carcinomas expression of the genes encoding the 25-(OH)D(3)-1alpha-hydroxylase as well as the VDR increases in parallel with ongoing dedifferentiation in the early phase of cancerogenesis, whereas in poorly differentiated late stage carcinomas only low levels of the respective mRNAs can be detected. This indicates that, through up-regulation of this intrinsic 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)/VDR system which mediates the anti-mitotic effects of the steroid hormone, colorectal cancer cells are apparently able to increase their potential for an autocrine counter-regulatory response to neoplastic cell growth, particularly in the early stages of malignancy.

Characterization of hepatic and brain metabolism in young adults with glycogen storage disease type 1: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study.

In glycogen storage disease type 1 (GSD1), children present with severe hypoglycemia, whereas the propensity for hypoglycemia may decrease with age in these patients. It was the aim of this study to elucidate the mechanisms for milder hypoglycemia symptoms in young adult GSD1 patients. Four patients with GSD1 [body mass index (BMI) 23.2 +/- 6.3 kg/m, age 21.3 +/- 2.9 yr] and four healthy controls matched for BMI (23.1 +/- 3.0 kg/m) and age (24.0 +/- 3.1 yr) were studied. Combined (1)H/(31)P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMRS) was used to assess brain metabolism. Before and after administration of 1 mg glucagon, endogenous glucose production (EGP) was measured with d-[6,6-(2)H(2)]glucose and hepatic glucose metabolism was examined by (1)H/(13)C/(31)P NMRS. At baseline, GSD1 patients exhibited significantly lower rates of EGP (0.53 +/- 0.04 vs. 1.74 +/- 0.03 mg.kg(-1).min(-1); P < 0.01) but an increased intrahepatic glycogen (502 +/- 89 vs. 236 +/- 11 mmol/l; P = 0.05) and lipid content (16.3 +/- 1.1 vs. 1.4 +/- 0.4%; P < 0.001). After glucagon challenge, EGP did not change in GSD1 patients (0.53 +/- 0.04 vs. 0.59 +/- 0.24 mg.kg(-1).min(-1); P = not significant) but increased in healthy controls (1.74 +/- 0.03 vs. 3.95 +/- 1.34; P < 0.0001). In GSD1 patients, we found an exaggerated increase of intrahepatic phosphomonoesters (0.23 +/- 0.08 vs. 0.86 +/- 0.19 arbitrary units; P < 0.001), whereas inorganic phosphate decreased (0.36 +/- 0.08 vs. -0.43 +/- 0.17 arbitrary units; P < 0.01). Intracerebral ratios of glucose and lactate to creatine were higher in GSD1 patients (P < 0.05 vs. control). Therefore, hepatic defects of glucose metabolism persist in young adult GSD1 patients. Upregulation of the glucose and lactate transport at the blood-brain barrier could be responsible for the amelioration of hypoglycemic symptoms.

Cerebral glutamate metabolism during hypoglycaemia in healthy and type 1 diabetic humans.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms responsible for the progressive failure of hypoglycaemia counterregulation in long-standing type 1 diabetes are poorly understood. Increased brain glucose uptake during hypoglycaemia or alterations of brain energy metabolism could effect glucose sensing by the brain and thus contribute to hypoglycaemia-associated autonomic failure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Type 1 diabetic patients (T1DM) and healthy volunteers (CON) were studied before, during and after a hypoglycaemic (50 mg dL(-1)) hyperinsulinaemic (1.5 mU kg(-1) min(-1)) clamp test. The (1)H magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the occipital lobe of the brain was performed employing the STEAM localization technique. The water signal was suppressed by the modified SWAMP method. All spectra were acquired on a 3 Tesla scanner (80 cm MEDSPEC-DBX, Bruker Medical, Ettlingen, Germany) using a 10-cm diameter surface coil. RESULTS: During hypoglycaemia, T1DM showed blunted endocrine counterregulation. At baseline the brain tissue glucose : creatine ratio was lower in CON than in T1DM (CON 0.13 +/- 0.05 vs. T1DM 0.19 0.11; P < 0.01). During hypoglycaemia glucose : creatine ratios decreased in both groups (CON 0.07 +/- 0.08, P < 0.05; T1DM 0.03 +/- 0.03, P < 0.001). A significant drop in the glutamate : creatine ratio could only be found in CON during hypoglycaemia (CON 1.36 +/- 0.08 vs. 1.26 +/- 0.11; P < 0.01; T1DM 1.32 +/- 0.13 vs. 1.28 +/- 0.15; P = NS). The ratios of glutamine, N-acetylaspartate, choline and myo-inositol : creatine were not different between both groups and did not change throughout the experiment. CONCLUSIONS: Only in CON does moderate hypoglycaemia reduce intracerebral glutamate concentrations, possibly owing to a slower substrate flux through the tricarboxylic acid cycle in neurones. The maintenance of normal energy metabolism in T1DM during hypoglycaemia might effect glucose sensing in the brain and contribute to hypoglycaemia-associated autonomic failure.

25-hydroxy-vitamin d metabolism in human colon cancer cells during tumor progression.

RT-PCR analysis showed elevated expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase (1alpha-OHase) and of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-24-hydroxylase (24-OHase) in well differentiated human colon carcinomas in comparison to normal mucosa. Further tumor progression is associated with a rise in 1alpha-OHase but with no significant change in 24-OHase mRNA expression. Accordingly, HPLC analysis of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D3 metabolism in freshly isolated tumor cells indicated that well to moderately differentiated colon cancers in situ are able to produce 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1alpha,25-(OH)2D3) and convert it through 24-OHase activity into side-chain modified metabolites, 1,24,25-(OH)3-D3 and 1,25-(OH)2- 24-oxo-D3. Likewise, 25-(OH)-D3 is metabolized into 24,25-(OH)2D3, 23,25-(OH)2D3, and 23,25-(OH)2-24-oxo-D3. Poorly-differentiated cancers expressed low levels of 1alpha-OHase mRNA, whereas 24-OHase was even over-expressed. RT-PCR and HPLC analysis of vitamin D metabolism in primary culture cell clones strongly suggested that the extent of endogenously produced 1alpha,25-(OH)2-D3 was inversely related to 24-OHase activity, which could thus limit the antimitotic efficacy of 1alpha,25-(OH)2-D3 particularly at late stages of colon cancer progression.

Growth inhibitory effects on human colon adenocarcinoma-derived Caco-2 cells and calcemic potential of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 analogs: structure-function relationships.

A panel of synthetic analogs of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1 alpha,25(OH)2D3] bearing one or multiple structural modifications at functionally or metabolically sensitive positions of the molecule, i.e., C-1, 16, 23, 26 and 27, were tested for their growth inhibitory and prodifferentiating potency in human colon adenocarcinoma-derived Caco-2 cells. With respect to the peak response elicited at 10(-8) M, 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-16-ene-vitamin D3, 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-23-yne-vitamin D3 and 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-16,23Z-diene-vitamin D3 suppressed [3H]thymidine incorporation in confluent Caco-2 cells less than 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3. 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-16,23e-diene-vitamin D3 was at least equipotent to the parent compound, whereas 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-16-ene-23-yne-vitamin D3 and most conspicuously 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-26,27-hexafluoro-16-ene-23-yne- vitamin D3 reduced growth of Caco-2 cells to significantly (P < .05) lower levels than 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3. The same rank order was obtained for the ability of the vitamin D compounds to induce activity of the differentiation marker enzyme, alkaline phosphatase, in quiescent Caco-2 cells. Whereas the effect of the synthetic analogs on calcium uptake by cultured embryonic chick duodenum in general was less pronounced than that of 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3, the two most potent antimitogenic compounds, 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-16-ene-23-yne-vitamin D3 and 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-26,27-hexafluoro-16-ene-23-yne-vitamin D3, elicited calcium mobilization from cultured neonatal mouse calvaria at a 10-fold lower concentration than the parent compound.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Calcium-dependent c-myc proto-oncogene expression and proliferation of Caco-2 cells: a role for a luminal extracellular calcium-sensing receptor.

The human colonic cell line Caco-2 responds to a reduction of ambient [Ca++]o to levels at and below 0.25 mM by a twofold increase in [3H]thymidine labelling of their DNA. [Ca++]o signals sensed preferentially across the luminal aspect of Caco-2 cells, are rapidly (4 h) transduced via PKC activation into up to sixfold increases in c-myc expression. This suggests the presence of a [Ca++]o-sensing membrane receptor (CaR) similar to that described by Brown et al. (1) in parathyroid and kidney cells. By RT-PCR we were able to amplify a 426 bp fragment from Caco-2 mRNA with 98% nucleotide identity to a part of the coding region for the extracellular domain of the parathyroid CaR. Immunohistochemical staining with a monoclonal antiparathyroid CaR antibody demonstrates CaR protein at the plasma membrane of confluent Caco-2 cells. Our results imply that the intestinal CaR is a potential mediator for the transduction of low luminal [Ca++]o into tumor promoting signals in human colonocytes.

Effect of near physiologic insulin therapy on hypoglycemia counterregulation in type-1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine hormonal counterregulation during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in type-1 diabetic patients during long-term near normoglycemic insulin therapy and intensive clinical care. METHODS: Type-1 diabetic patients (age 35.3 +/- 2 years, body mass index 22.8 +/- 1 kg x m(-2), mean diabetes duration 13.6 (11-17 years), mean HbA1c during the last year 6.6 +/- 0.1%) and nondiabetic subjects were studied during (0-120 min) and after (120-240 min) hypoglycemic (3.05 mmol/l) hyperinsulinemic (approximately 330 pmol/l) clamp tests. RESULTS: During hypoglycemia peak plasma concentrations of glucagon (199 +/- 16 vs. 155 +/- 11 ng/l, p < 0.05), epinephrine (4,514 +/- 644 vs. 1,676 +/- 513 pmol/l, p < 0.001), norepinephrine (2.21 +/- 0.14 vs. 1.35 +/- 0.19 nmol/l, p < 0.01) and cortisol (532 +/- 44 vs. 334 +/- 61 nmol/l) were reduced in the diabetic patients. Plasma lactate did not change from baseline values (0.51 +/- 0.06 mmol/l) in diabetic but doubled in healthy subjects (1.13 +/- 0.111 mmol/l, p < 0.001 vs. control). During the posthypoglycemic recovery period plasma concentrations of free fatty acids were higher in diabetic patients at 240 min (1.34 +/- 0.12 vs. 2.01 +/- 0.23 mmol/l, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Despite long-term near physiologic insulin substitution and the low incidence of hypoglycemia, hormonal hypoglycemia counterregulation was impaired in type-1 diabetic patients after a diabetes duration of more than 10 years.

Brain energy metabolism during hypoglycaemia in healthy and type 1 diabetic subjects.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: This study aimed to examine brain energy metabolism during moderate insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in Type 1 diabetic patients and healthy volunteers. METHODS: Type 1 diabetic patients (mean diabetes duration 13 +/- 2.5 years; HbA1c 6.8 +/- 0.3%) and matched controls were studied before, during (0-120 min) and after (120-240 min) hypoglycaemic (approximately 3.0 mmol/l) hyperinsulinaemic (1.5 mU x kg(-1) min(-1)) clamp tests. Brain energy metabolism was assessed by in vivo 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the occipital lobe (3 Tesla, 10-cm surface coil). RESULTS: During hypoglycaemia, the diabetic patients showed blunted endocrine counter-regulation. Throughout the study, the phosphocreatine:gamma-ATP ratios were lower in the diabetic patients (baseline: controls 3.08 +/- 0.29 vs diabetic patients 2.65 +/- 0.43, p<0.01; hypoglycaemia: 2.97 +/- 0.38 vs 2.60 +/- 0.35, p<0.05; recovery: 3.01 +/- 0.28 vs 2.60 +/- 0.35, p<0.01). Intracellular pH increased in both groups, being higher in diabetic patients (7.096 +/- 0.010 vs. 7.107 +/- 0.015, p<0.04), whereas intracellular magnesium concentrations decreased in both groups (controls: 377 +/- 33 vs 321 +/- 39; diabetic patients: 388 +/- 47 vs 336 +/- 68 micromol/l; p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Despite a lower cerebral phosphocreatine:gamma-ATP ratio in Type 1 diabetic patients at baseline, this ratio does not change in control or diabetic patients during modest hypoglycaemia. However, both groups exhibit subtle changes in intracellular pH and intracellular magnesium concentrations.

Lipid-dependent control of hepatic glycogen stores in healthy humans.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Non-esterified fatty acids and glycerol could stimulate gluconeogenesis and also contribute to regulating hepatic glycogen stores. We examined their effect on liver glycogen breakdown in humans. METHODS: After an overnight fast healthy subjects participated in three protocols with lipid/heparin (plasma non-esterified fatty acids: 2.2 +/- 0.1 mol/l; plasma glycerol: 0.5 +/- 0.03 mol/l; n = 7), glycerol (0.4 +/- 0.1 mol/l; 1.5 +/- 0.2 mol/l; n = 5) and saline infusion (control; 0.5 +/- 0.1 mol/l; 0.2 +/- 0.02 mol/l; n = 7). Net rates of glycogen breakdown were calculated from the decrease of liver glycogen within 9 h using 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Endogenous glucose production was measured with infusion of D-[6,6-2H2]glucose. RESULTS: Endogenous glucose production decreased by about 25 % during lipid and saline infusion (p < 0.005) but not during glycerol infusion (p < 0.001 vs lipid, saline). An increase of plasma non-esterified fatty acids or glycerol reduced the net glycogen breakdown by about 84 % to 0.6 +/- 0.3 micromol x kg(-1) x min(-1) (p < 0.001 vs saline: 3.7 +/- 0.5 micromol x kg(-1) x min(-1)) and by about 46 % to 2.0 +/- 0.4 micromol x kg(-1) x min(-1) (p < 0.01 vs saline and lipid), respectively. Rates of gluconeogenesis increased to 11.5 +/- 0.8 micromol x kg(-1) x min(-1) (p < 0.01) and 12.8 +/- 1.0 micromol x kg(-1) min(-1) (p < 0.01 vs saline: 8.2 +/- 0.7 micromol x l(-1) x min(-1)), respectively. CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: An increase of non-esterifled fatty acid leads to a pronounced inhibition of net hepatic glycogen breakdown and increases gluconeogenesis whereas glucose production does not differ from the control condition. We suggest that this effect is not due to increased availability of glycerol alone but rather to lipid-dependent control of hepatic glycogen stores.

Differentiation-related pathways of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol metabolism in human colon adenocarcinoma-derived Caco-2 cells: production of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-3epi-cholecalciferol.

We used the human colon adenocarcinoma-derived cell line Caco-2, which spontaneously differentiates in vitro, as a model system to investigate the metabolism of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in colon cancer cells. Subconfluent proliferating and confluent differentiating cells were incubated with 1 microM 1 alpha,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol for a period of 24 to 48 h. HPLC analysis of the lipid extract of both cells and media was performed to isolate and identify the various metabolites of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol. Undifferentiated, highly proliferating Caco-2 cells metabolized 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol into several side chain modified metabolites formed through the C-24 oxidation pathway. In contrast, no metabolites of the C-24 oxidation pathway were identified in differentiated Caco-2 cells. However, differentiated cells produced significant amounts of a metabolite which was less polar than 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol on a straight phase HPLC system. This metabolite was identified as 1 alpha,25-dihydroxy-3alpha-cholecalciferol by comigration with a synthetic standard on two different HPLC systems and gas chromatography--mass spectrometry. Thus, we were able to demonstrate that the state of differentiation has a profound influence on 1 alpha,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol metabolism in colon cancer cells.

Hormonal and metabolic counterregulation during and after high-dose insulin-induced hypoglycemia in diabetes mellitus type 2.

Non-obese type 2 diabetic subjects in good metabolic control (n=6, HbA1c 7.0 +/- 0.3%, mean diabetes duration: 5.7 +/- 1 years) and matched non-diabetic subjects (control; n = 6) were studied during hyperinsulinemic (approximately 3 nmol/l)-hypoglycemic (approximately 3.1 mmol/l) clamp tests (0-120 min) and the subsequent recovery period (120-240 min). Plasma glucagon rose gradually but not significantly, whereas norepinephrine and epinephrine similarly increased approximately 2 and approximately 25-fold in both groups. Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) decreased to approximately 41% and approximately 24% of basal values during hypoglycemia and rapidly rose approximately 4.7-fold during the recovery period, while plasma C-peptide remained suppressed in both groups. Within 140 min, plasma free fatty acids similarly decreased to approximately 70 micromol/l (p < 0.05), but then rose to values being approximately 50% higher in diabetic than in control subjects (240 min: 907 +/- 93 vs. 602 +/- 90 micromol/l; p < 0.05). Glucose infusion rates were comparable during hypoglycemia, but approximately 40% lower during recovery in diabetic patients (1.88 +/- 0.27 vs. 3.44 +/- 0.27 mg x kg(-1) x min(-1), p < 0.001). These results demonstrate that (i) hypoglycemia induced by high-dose insulin largely abolishes the counterregulatory response of glucagon, but not of catecholamines in nondiabetic and well-controlled type 2 diabetic subjects, (ii) the rapid posthypoglycemic increase of plasma IAPP occurs independently of plasma insulin, and (iii) the superior rise in plasma free fatty acids may account at least in part for the posthypoglycemic insulin resistance of type 2 diabetic patients.