Activin A in Mammalian Physiology.

Activins are dimeric glycoproteins belonging to the transforming growth factor beta superfamily and resulting from the assembly of two beta subunits, which may also be combined with alpha subunits to form inhibins. Activins were discovered in 1986 following the isolation of inhibins from porcine follicular fluid, and were characterized as ovarian hormones that stimulate follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) release by the pituitary gland. In particular, activin A was shown to be the isoform of greater physiological importance in humans. The current understanding of activin A surpasses the reproductive system and allows its classification as a hormone, a growth factor, and a cytokine. In more than 30 yr of intense research, activin A was localized in female and male reproductive organs but also in other organs and systems as diverse as the brain, liver, lung, bone, and gut. Moreover, its roles include embryonic differentiation, trophoblast invasion of the uterine wall in early pregnancy, and fetal/neonate brain protection in hypoxic conditions. It is now recognized that activin A overexpression may be either cytostatic or mitogenic, depending on the cell type, with important implications for tumor biology. Activin A also regulates bone formation and regeneration, enhances joint inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis, and triggers pathogenic mechanisms in the respiratory system. In this 30-yr review, we analyze the evidence for physiological roles of activin A and the potential use of activin agonists and antagonists as therapeutic agents.

Sex-specific effect of antenatal Zika virus infection on murine fetal growth, placental nutrient transporters, and nutrient sensor signaling pathways.

Maternal Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy has been associated with severe intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), placental damage, metabolism disturbances, and newborn neurological abnormalities. Here, we investigated the impact of maternal ZIKV infection on placental nutrient transporters and nutrient-sensitive pathways. Immunocompetent (C57BL/6) mice were injected with Low (103 PFU-ZIKVPE243) or High (5 × 107 PFU-ZIKVPE243) ZIKV titers at gestational day (GD) 12.5, and tissue was collected at GD18.5 (term). Fetal-placental growth was impaired in male fetuses, which exhibited higher placental expression of the ZIKV infective marker, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2α), but lower levels of phospho-eIF2α. There were no differences in fetal-placental growth in female fetuses, which exhibited no significant alterations in placental ZIKV infective markers. Furthermore, ZIKV promoted increased expression of glucose transporter type 1 (Slc2a1/Glut1) and decreased levels of glucose-6-phosphate in female placentae, with no differences in amino acid transport potential. In contrast, ZIKV did not impact glucose transporters in male placentae but downregulated sodium-coupled neutral amino acid 2 (Snat2) transporter expression. We also observed sex-dependent differences in the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP) and O-GlcNAcylation in ZIKV-infected pregnancies, showing that ZIKV can disturb placental nutrient sensing. Our findings highlight molecular alterations in the placenta caused by maternal ZIKV infection, shedding light on nutrient transport, sensing, and availability. Our results also suggest that female and male placentae employ distinct coping mechanisms in response to ZIKV-induced metabolic changes, providing insights into therapeutic approaches for congenital Zika syndrome.

The placenta in fetal death: molecular evidence of dysregulation of inflammatory, proliferative, and fetal protective pathways.

BACKGROUND: It is estimated that over 2 million cases of fetal death occur worldwide every year, but, despite the high incidence, several basic and clinical characteristics of this disorder are still unclear. Placenta is suggested to play a central role in fetal death. Placenta produces hormones, cytokines and growth factors that modulate functions of the placental-maternal unit. Fetal death has been correlated with impaired secretion of some of these regulatory factors. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to evaluate, in placentas collected from fetal death, the gene expression of inflammatory, proliferative and protective factors. STUDY DESIGN: Cases of fetal death in singleton pregnancy were retrospectively selected, excluding pregnancies complicated by fetal anomalies, gestational diabetes, intrauterine growth restriction and moderate to severe maternal diseases. A group of placentas collected from healthy singleton term pregnancies were used as controls. Groups were compared regarding maternal and gestational age, fetal sex and birthweight. Placental messenger RNA expression of inflammatory (interleukin 6), proliferative (activin A, transforming growth factor ß1) and regulatory (vascular endothelial growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC) ABCB1 and ABCG2, sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling pathway) markers was conducted using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Statistical analysis and graphical representation of the data were performed using the GraphPad Prism 5 software. For the statistical analysis, Student's t test was used, and P values<.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: Placental mRNA expression of interleukin 6 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 resulted significantly higher in the fetal death group compared to controls (P<.01), while activin A, ABCB1, and ABCG2 expression resulted significantly lower (P<.01). A significant alteration in the sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling pathway was found in the fetal death group, with an increased expression of the specific receptor isoforms sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1, 3, and 4 (sphingosine 1-phosphate1, sphingosine 1-phosphate3, sphingosine 1-phosphate4) and of sphingosine kinase 2, 1 of the enzyme isoforms responsible for sphingosine 1-phosphate synthesis (P<.01). CONCLUSION: The present study confirmed a significantly increased expression of placental interleukin 6 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 mRNA, and for the first time showed an increased expression of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors and sphingosine kinase 2 as well as a decreased expression of activin A and of selected ATP-binding cassette transporters, suggesting that multiple inflammatory and protective factors are deranged in placenta of fetal death.

Fetal glucocorticoid exposure leads to sex-specific changes in drug-transporter function at the blood-brain barrier in juvenile guinea pigs.

Antenatal synthetic glucocorticoids (sGCs) are a life-saving treatment in managing pre-term birth. However, off-target effects of sGCs can impact blood-brain barrier (BBB) drug transporters essential for fetal brain protection, including P-glycoprotein (P-gp/Abcb1) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/Abcg2). We hypothesized that maternal antenatal sGC treatment modifies BBB function in juvenile offspring in a sex-dependent manner. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the long-term impact of a single or multiple courses of betamethasone on P-gp/Abcb1 and BCRP/Abcg2 expression and function at the BBB. Pregnant guinea pigs (N = 42) received 3 courses (gestation days (GDs) 40, 50, and 60) or a single course (GD50) of betamethasone (1 mg/kg) or vehicle (saline). Cerebral microvessels and brain endothelial cells (BEC) were collected from the post-natal day (PND) 14 offspring to measure protein, gene expression, and function of the drug transporters P-gp/Abcb1 and BCRP/Abcg2. P-gp protein expression was decreased (p < .05) in microvessels from male offspring that had been exposed to multiple courses and a single course of sGC, in utero. Multiple courses of sGC resulted in a significant decrease in P-gp function in BECs from males (p < .05), but not females. There was a very strong trend for increased P-gp function in males compared to females (p = .055). Reduced P-gp expression and function at the BBB of young male offspring following multiple prenatal sGC exposures, is clinically relevant as many drugs administered postnatally are P-gp substrates. These novel sex differences in drug transporter function may underlie potential sexual dimorphism in drug sensitivity and toxicity in the newborn and juvenile brain.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) drug transporters in the developing blood-brain barrier: role in fetal brain protection.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) provides essential neuroprotection from environmental toxins and xenobiotics, through high expression of drug efflux transporters in endothelial cells of the cerebral capillaries. However, xenobiotic exposure, stress, and inflammatory stimuli have the potential to disrupt BBB permeability in fetal and post-natal life. Understanding the role and ability of the BBB in protecting the developing brain, particularly with respect to drug/toxin transport, is key to promoting long-term brain health. Drug transporters, particularly P-gp and BCRP are expressed in early gestation at the developing BBB and have a crucial role in developmental homeostasis and fetal brain protection. We have highlighted several factors that modulate drug transporters at the developing BBB, including synthetic glucocorticoid (sGC), cytokines, maternal infection, and growth factors. Some factors have the potential to increase expression and function of drug transporters and increase brain protection (e.g., sGC, transforming growth factor [TGF]-ß). However, others inhibit drug transporters expression and function at the BBB, increasing brain exposure to xenobiotics (e.g., tumor necrosis factor [TNF], interleukin [IL]-6), negatively impacting brain development. This has implications for pregnant women and neonates, who represent a vulnerable population and may be exposed to drugs and environmental toxins, many of which are P-gp and BCRP substrates. Thus, alterations in regulated transport across the developing BBB may induce long-term changes in brain health and compromise pregnancy outcome. Furthermore, a large portion of neonatal adverse drug reactions are attributed to agents that target or access the nervous system, such as stimulants (e.g., caffeine), anesthetics (e.g., midazolam), analgesics (e.g., morphine) and antiretrovirals (e.g., Zidovudine); thus, understanding brain protection is key for the development of strategies to protect the fetal and neonatal brain.

Hypoxia alters the expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 SARS-CoV-2 cell entry mediators in hCMEC/D3 brain endothelial cells.

The mechanisms by which the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) induces neurological complications remain to be elucidated. We aimed to identify possible effects of hypoxia on the expression of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry mediators, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) protein, in human brain endothelial cells, in vitro. hCMEC/D3 cells were exposed to different oxygen tensions: 20% (Control group), 8% or 2% O2 (Hypoxia groups). Cells were harvested 6-, 24- and 48 h following hypoxic challenge for assessment of mRNA and protein, using qPCR and Western Blot. The response of the brain endothelial cells to hypoxia was replicated using modular incubator chambers. We observed an acute increase (6 h, p < 0.05), followed by a longer-term decrease (48 h, p < 0.05) in ACE2 mRNA and protein expression, accompanied by reduced expression of TMPRSS2 protein levels (48 h, p < 0.05) under the more severe hypoxic condition (2% O2). No changes in levels of von Willebrand Factor (vWF - an endothelial cell damage marker) or interleukin 6 (IL-6 - a pro-inflammatory cytokine) mRNA were observed. We conclude that hypoxia regulates brain endothelial cell ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression in vitro, which may indicate human brain endothelial susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection and subsequent brain sequelae.

Expression of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 cell entry genes, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2, in the placenta across gestation and at the maternal-fetal interface in pregnancies complicated by preterm birth or preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Although there is some evidence that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 can invade the human placenta, limited data exist on the gestational age-dependent expression profile of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 cell entry mediators, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2, at the human maternal-fetal interface. There is also no information as to whether the expression of these mediators is altered in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia or preterm birth. This is important because the expression of decidual and placental angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2 across gestation may affect the susceptibility of pregnancies to vertical transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the expression pattern of specific severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 cell entry genes, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2, in the placenta across human pregnancy and in paired samples of decidua and placenta in pregnancies complicated by preterm birth or preeclampsia compared with those in term uncomplicated pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN: In this study, 2 separate cohorts of patients, totaling 87 pregnancies, were included. The first cohort was composed of placentae from first- (7-9 weeks), second- (16-18 weeks), and third-trimester preterm (26-31 weeks) and third-trimester term (38-41 weeks) pregnancies (n=5/group), whereas the second independent cohort included matched decidua and placentae from pregnancies from term uncomplicated pregnancies (37-41 weeks' gestation; n=14) and pregnancies complicated by preterm birth (26-37 weeks' gestation; n=11) or preeclampsia (25-37 weeks' gestation; n=42). Samples were subjected to quantitative polymerase chain reaction and next-generation sequencing or RNA sequencing for next-generation RNA sequencing for angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2 mRNA expression quantification, respectively. RESULTS: In the first cohort, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2, exhibited a gestational age-dependent expression profile, that is, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and transmembrane protease serine 2 mRNA was higher (P<.05) in the first-trimester placenta than in second-trimester, preterm birth, and term placentae (P<.05) and exhibited a negative correlation with gestational age (P<.05). In the second cohort, RNA sequencing demonstrated very low or undetectable expression levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in preterm birth, preeclampsia, and term decidua and in placentae from late gestation. In contrast, transmembrane protease serine 2 was expressed in both decidual and placental samples but did not change in pregnancies complicated by either preterm birth or preeclampsia. CONCLUSION: The increased expression of these severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 cell entry-associated genes in the placenta in the first trimester of pregnancy compared with those in later stages of pregnancy suggests the possibility of differential susceptibility to placental entry to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 across pregnancy. Even though there is some evidence of increased rates of preterm birth associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, we found no increase in mRNA expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 or transmembrane protease serine 2 at the maternal-fetal interface.

Maternal protein restriction before and during pregnancy leads to a gestational day-dependent response of folliculogenesis in outbred mice.

Knowledge of follicle development during pregnancy under experimental conditions could be a key factor to understanding maternal ovarian activity. Thus, this study evaluated the effects of maternal protein restriction before and during pregnancy on folliculogenesis. Swiss outbred female mice were allocated to either a control (CC; 20% protein) or treated (TT; 8% protein) group. Pregnant females were killed either on Gestational day (GD) 7.5 or GD17.5 and the ovaries were evaluated using histomorphometric and immunohistochemical methods. TT females showed higher feed and energy intakes, but lower bodyweight gain at GD17.5 (P<0.05). They also had lower number of secondary follicles at GD7.5 and a higher proportion of primordial follicles at GD17.5 (P<0.05). In addition, the areas of the secondary follicles and their granulosa layer were smaller in the TT group on GD7.5, whereas the areas of the oocyte and granulosa layer from atretic follicles were larger (P<0.05). Notwithstanding the slight increase in the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) receptor expression on GD7.5 in the TT group, there was a marked reduction in IGF1 expression detected in secondary follicles on GD17.5 (P<0.05). Collectively, these results demonstrate that protein restriction during pregnancy negatively affects follicle quality by reducing the size and activation capacity, which is more severe in late pregnancy.

Malaria in pregnancy regulates P-glycoprotein (P-gp/Abcb1a) and ABCA1 efflux transporters in the Mouse Visceral Yolk Sac.

Malaria in pregnancy (MiP) induces intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and preterm labour (PTL). However, its effects on yolk sac morphology and function are largely unexplored. We hypothesized that MiP modifies yolk sac morphology and efflux transport potential by modulating ABC efflux transporters. C57BL/6 mice injected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA (5 × 105 infected erythrocytes) at gestational day (GD) 13.5 were subjected to yolk sac membrane harvesting at GD 18.5 for histology, qPCR and immunohistochemistry. MiP did not alter the volumetric proportion of the yolk sac's histological components. However, it increased levels of Abcb1a mRNA (encoding P-glycoprotein) and macrophage migration inhibitory factor (Mif chemokine), while decreasing Abcg1 (P < 0.05); without altering Abca1, Abcb1b, Abcg2, Snat1, Snat2, interleukin (Il)-1ß and C-C Motif chemokine ligand 2 (Ccl2). Transcripts of Il-6, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (Cxcl1), Glut1 and Snat4 were not detectible. ABCA1, ABCG1, breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) and P-gp were primarily immunolocalized to the cell membranes and cytoplasm of endodermic epithelium but also in the mesothelium and in the endothelium of mesodermic blood vessels. Intensity of P-gp labelling was stronger in both endodermic epithelium and mesothelium, whereas ABCA1 labelling increased in the endothelium of the mesodermic blood vessels. The presence of ABC transporters in the yolk sac wall suggests that this fetal membrane acts as an important protective gestational barrier. Changes in ABCA1 and P-gp in MiP may alter the biodistribution of toxic substances, xenobiotics, nutrients and immunological factors within the fetal compartment and participate in the pathogenesis of malaria-induced IUGR and PTL.

Gestational age-dependent gene expression profiling of ATP-binding cassette transporters in the healthy human placenta.

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters control placental transfer of several nutrients, steroids, immunological factors, chemicals, and drugs at the maternal-fetal interface. We and others have demonstrated a gestational age-dependent expression pattern of two ABC transporters, P-glycoprotein and breast cancer resistance protein throughout pregnancy. However, no reports have comprehensively elucidated the expression pattern of all 50 ABC proteins, comparing first trimester and term human placentae. We hypothesized that placental ABC transporters are expressed in a gestational-age dependent manner in normal human pregnancy. Using the TaqMan® Human ABC Transporter Array, we assessed the mRNA expression of all 50 ABC transporters in first (first trimester, n = 8) and third trimester (term, n = 12) human placentae and validated the resulting expression of selected ABC transporters using qPCR, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. A distinct gene expression profile of 30 ABC transporters was observed comparing first trimester vs. term placentae. Using individual qPCR in selected genes, we validated the increased expression of ABCA1 (P < 0.01), ABCA6 (P < 0.001), ABCA9 (P < 0.001) and ABCC3 (P < 0.001), as well as the decreased expression of ABCB11 (P < 0.001) and ABCG4 (P < 0.01) with advancing gestation. One important lipid transporter, ABCA6, was selected to correlate protein abundance and characterize tissue localization. ABCA6 exhibited increased protein expression towards term and was predominantly localized to syncytiotrophoblast cells. In conclusion, expression patterns of placental ABC transporters change as a function of gestational age. These changes are likely fundamental to a healthy pregnancy given the critical role that these transporters play in the regulation of steroidogenesis, immunological responses, and placental barrier function and integrity.

Glucocorticoids modulate multidrug resistance transporters in the first trimester human placenta.

The placental multidrug transporters, P-glycoprotein (P-gp, encoded by ABCB1) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP, ABCG2) protect the foetus from exposure to maternally derived glucocorticoids, toxins and xenobiotics. During pregnancy, maternal glucocorticoid levels can be elevated by stress or exogenous administration. We hypothesized that glucocorticoids modulate the expression of ABCB1/P-gp and ABCG2/BCRP in the first trimester human placenta. Our objective was to examine whether dexamethasone (DEX) or cortisol modulate first trimester placental expression of multidrug transporters and determine whether cytotrophoblasts or the syncytiotrophoblast are/is responsible for mediating these effects. Three models were examined: (i) an ex-vivo model of placental villous explants (7-10 weeks), (ii) a model of isolated first trimester syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast cells and (iii) the BeWo immortalized trophoblast cell line model. These cells/tissues were treated with DEX or cortisol for 24 hour to 72 hour. In first trimester placental explants, DEX (48 hour) increased ABCB1 (P < .001) and ABCG2 (P < .05) mRNA levels, whereas cortisol (48 hour) only increased ABCB1 mRNA levels (P < .01). Dexamethasone (P < .05) and cortisol (P < .01) increased BCRP but did not affect P-gp protein levels. Breast cancer resistance protein expression was primarily confined to syncytiotrophoblasts. BeWo cells, when syncytialized with forskolin, increased expression of BCRP protein, and this was further augmented by DEX (P < .05). Our data suggest that the protective barrier provided by BCRP increases as cytotrophoblasts fuse to form the syncytiotrophoblast. Increase in glucocorticoid levels during the first trimester may reduce embryo/foetal exposure to clinically relevant BCRP substrates, because of an increase in placental BCRP.

P-Glycoprotein (P-gp)/ABCB1 plays a functional role in extravillous trophoblast (EVT) invasion and is decreased in the pre-eclamptic placenta.

Dysregulation of trophoblast differentiation is implicated in the placental pathologies of intrauterine growth restriction and pre-eclampsia. P-glycoprotein (P-gp encoded by ABCB1) is an ATP-binding cassette transporter present in the syncytiotrophoblast layer of the placenta where it acts as a molecular sieve. In this study, we show that P-gp is also expressed in the proliferating cytotrophoblast (CT), the syncytiotrophoblast (ST) and the extravillous trophoblast (EVT), suggesting our hypothesis of a functional role for P-gp in placental development. Silencing of ABCB1, via siRNA duplex, results in dramatically reduced invasion and migration, and increased tube formation and fusion in the EVT-like HTR8/SVneo cell line. In both EVT and CT explant differentiation experiments, silencing of ABCB1 leads to induction of the fusion markers human hCG, ERVW-1 and GJA1 and terminal differentiation of both trophoblast subtypes. Moreover, P-gp protein levels are decreased in both the villous and the EVT of severe early-onset pre-eclamptic placentas. We conclude that, in addition to its role as a syncytial transporter, P-gp is a key factor in the maintenance of both CT and EVT lineages and that its decrease in severe pre-eclampsia may contribute to the syncytial and EVT placental pathologies associated with this disease.

Chorioamnionitis Induces a Specific Signature of Placental ABC Transporters Associated with an Increase of miR-331-5p in the Human Preterm Placenta.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters mediate drug biodisposition and immunological responses in the placental barrier. In vitro infective challenges alter expression of specific placental ABC transporters. We hypothesized that chorioamnionitis induces a distinct pattern of ABC transporter expression. METHODS: Gene expression of 50 ABC transporters was assessed using TaqMan® Human ABC Transporter Array, in preterm human placentas without (PTD; n=6) or with histological chorioamnionitis (PTDC; n=6). Validation was performed using qPCR, immunohistochemistry and Western blot. MicroRNAs known to regulate P-glycoprotein (P-gp) were examined by qPCR. RESULTS: Up-regulation of ABCB9, ABCC2 and ABCF2 mRNA was detected in chorioamnionitis (p<0.05), whereas placental ABCB1 (P-gp; p=0.051) and ABCG2 (breast cancer resistance protein-BCRP) mRNA levels (p=0.055) approached near significant up-regulation. In most cases, the magnitude of the effect significantly correlated to the severity of inflammation. Upon validation, increased placental ABCB1 and ABCG2 mRNA levels (p<0.05) were observed. At the level of immunohistochemistry, while BCRP was increased (p<0.05), P-gp staining intensity was significantly decreased (p<0.05) in PTDC. miR-331-5p, involved in P-gp suppression, was upregulated in PTDC (p<0.01) and correlated to the grade of chorioamnionitis (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Alterations in the expression of ABC transporters will likely lead to modified transport of clinically relevant compounds at the inflamed placenta. A better understanding of the potential role of these transporters in the events surrounding PTD may also enable new strategies to be developed for prevention and treatment of PTD.

Lower follicular fluid vitamin D concentration is related to a higher number of large ovarian follicles.

Vitamin D receptor-knockout mice fail to produce mature oocytes, indicating vitamin D is crucial for folliculogenesis in mice. However, the actions of vitamin D during folliculogenesis remain unknown. This prospective study aimed to assess whether follicular fluid (FF) vitamin D (25OHD3) concentrations are related to specific responses to ovarian stimulation. Women undergoing ovarian stimulation for IVF participated in the study. FF 25OHD3 concentrations were assessed in the first follicle aspirate on oocyte retrieval day. Oestradiol and progesterone concentrations were assessed on the trigger day. K-means grouping analysis showed that 25OHD3 FF concentrations clustered into a higher and lower group (mean ± SEM 17.4 ± 6.61 ng/ml and 35.5 ± 7.17 ng/ml, respectively, P < 0.001). The clusters were analysed according to the oestradiol and progesterone concentrations, follicle number and size and resulting oocyte number and maturity. The FF 25OHD3 concentrations were no different among the infertility diagnoses. The lower 25OHD3 group had more follicles (≥16.0 mm, P = 0.009) and higher serum oestradiol concentrations (P < 0.03) on the day of HCG administration. In this study, lower follicular 25OHD3 concentrations predicted a better response to ovarian stimulation shown by a greater production of larger follicles and higher serum oestradiol concentrations.

Acute Effects of Viral Exposure on P-Glycoprotein Function in the Mouse Fetal Blood-Brain Barrier.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Viral infection during pregnancy is known to affect the fetal brain. The toll-like receptor (TLR)-3 is a pattern recognition receptor activated by viruses known to elicit adverse fetal neurological outcomes. The P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux transporter protects the developing fetus by limiting the transfer of substrates across both the placenta and the fetal blood-brain barrier (BBB). As such, inhibition of P-gp at these blood-barrier sites may result in increased exposure of the developing fetus to environmental toxins and xenobiotics present in the maternal circulation. We hypothesized that viral exposure during pregnancy would impair P-gp function in the placenta and in the developing BBB. Here we investigated whether the TLR-3 ligand, polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (PolyI:C), increased accumulation of one P-gp substrate in the fetus and in the developing fetal brain. METHODS: Pregnant C57BL/6 mice (GD15.5) were injected (i.p.) with PolyI:C (5 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg) or vehicle (saline). [3H]digoxin (P-gp substrate) was injected (i.v.) 3 or 23h post-treatment and animals were euthanized 1h later. Maternal plasma, 'fetal-units' (fetal membranes, amniotic fluid and whole fetus), and fetal brains were collected. RESULTS: PolyI:C exposure (4h) significantly elevated maternal plasma IL-6 (P<0.001) and increased [3H]digoxin accumulation in the fetal brain (P<0.05). In contrast, 24h after PolyI:C exposure, no effect on IL-6 or fetal brain accumulation of P-gp substrate was observed. CONCLUSION: Viral infection modeled by PolyI:C causes acute increases in fetal brain accumulation of P-gp substrates and by doing so, may increase fetal brain exposure to xenobiotics and environmental toxins present in the maternal circulation.

Glucocorticoids modify effects of TGF-ß1 on multidrug resistance in the fetal blood-brain barrier.

Transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) increases P-glycoprotein (P-gp; encoded by Abcb1) activity in fetal brain endothelial cells (BECs). P-gp is important for fetal brain protection against xenobiotics including synthetic glucocorticoids (sGC). We hypothesized that antenatal sGC would modify P-gp responsiveness to TGF-ß1 in fetal BECs. Pregnant guinea pigs were treated with dexamethasone or vehicle (N = 5/group) on gestational day (GD) 48-49 and BECs derived on GD50. In BECs from control fetuses, TGF-ß1 increased Abcb1 mRNA and P-gp function, by approximately 5-fold and 55% respectively, as well as tight junction function. In contrast, TGF-ß1 had no effect on these parameters in BECs from sGC-exposed fetuses. Moreover, levels of TGF-ß1 responsive gene, Smad7, were increased 3-fold in BECs from control fetuses after TGF-ß1 but not in sGC-exposed fetuses. In conclusion, antenatal sGC alters responsiveness to TGF-ß1 in fetal BECs. This study has identified novel mechanisms by which TGF-ß1 and sGC modulate fetal brain protection against xenobiotics and other P-gp substrates.

Impact of bacterial and viral challenge on multidrug resistance in first- and third-trimester human placenta.

The ABC transporters P-glycoprotein (P-gp, official gene symbol ABCB1) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP, official gene symbol ABCG2) protect the conceptus from exposure to toxins and xenobiotics present in the maternal circulation. Viral or bacterial challenges alter expression of placental multidrug transporters in rodents. We hypothesized that exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS, bacterial antigen) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C), viral antigen) would decrease P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta. Placental explants from first and third trimesters were challenged with 0.1 to 10 µg/mL LPS or 1 to 50 µg/mL poly(I:C) for 4 or 24 hours; mRNA levels, protein expression, and localization were assessed by quantitative real-time PCR, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Toll-like receptor (TLR)-3 and TLR-4 mRNA expression increased from the first to third trimester (P < 0.01), and the receptors localized to cytotrophoblasts in the first trimester and to syncytiotrophoblasts in the third trimester. LPS exposure in first-trimester explants decreased (P < 0.001) ABCB1 and ABCG2 mRNA and protein levels. In contrast, poly(I:C) decreased (P < 0.05) ABCB1, TLR-3, and TLR-4 mRNA levels in the third trimester but not first trimester. LPS and poly(I:C) treatments increased (P < 0.01) IL-8 and chemokine ligand 2. Results suggest that bacterial infections likely alter exposure of the conceptus to toxins and drugs during early pregnancy, whereas viral infections may disrupt fetal protection in later stages of pregnancy.

Expression, localization and control of activin A release from human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Activin-A is a member of the TGFß superfamily found in maternal and umbilical cord blood throughout gestation. We investigated whether human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) express activin-A in vivo and tested the effects of vasoactive (endothelin-1), pro-inflammatory (interferon-γ, interleukin-8) and anti-inflammatory (dexamethasone, urocortin) factors on activin-A release by isolated HUVEC in vitro. Activin ßA subunit protein and mRNA were strongly localized in the endothelial cells of umbilical veins and were also detectable in scattered cells of the cord connective tissue. Dimeric activin-A was detected in the HUVEC culture medium at picomolar concentrations. Activin-A release by HUVEC decreased after cell incubation with urocortin (p < 0.01), whereas no effect was observed with interleukin-8, interferon-γ, endothelin-1 or dexamethasone. In summary, activin-A is present in the human umbilical vein endothelium in vivo and is produced and released by isolated HUVEC. Activin-A secretion is inhibited in vitro by urocortin, a neuropeptide with predominantly anti-inflammatory action.

Hypoxia modulates P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) drug transporters in brain endothelial cells of the developing human blood-brain barrier.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (BCRP) multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters are localized at the luminal surface of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). They confer fetal brain protection against harmful compounds that may be circulating in the peripheral blood. The fetus develops in low oxygen levels; however, some obstetric pathologies such as pre-eclampsia, placenta accreta/previa may result in even greater fetal hypoxic states. We investigated how hypoxia impacts MDR transporters in human fetal brain endothelial cells (hfBECs) derived from early and mid-stages of pregnancy. Hypoxia decreased BCRP protein and activity in hfBECs derived in early pregnancy. In contrast, in hfBECs derived in mid-pregnancy there was an increase in P-gp and BCRP activity following hypoxia. Results suggest a hypoxia-induced reduction in fetal brain protection in early pregnancy, but a potential increase in transporter-mediated protection at the BBB during mid-gestation. This would modify accumulation of various key physiological and pharmacological substrates of P-gp and BCRP in the developing fetal brain and potentially contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders commonly associated with in utero hypoxia.

Gestational Age, Infection, and Suboptimal Maternal Prepregnancy BMI Independently Associate with Placental Histopathology in a Cohort of Pregnancies without Major Maternal Comorbidities.

Background: The placenta undergoes morphological and functional adaptations to adverse exposures during pregnancy. The effects ofsuboptimal maternal body mass index (BMI), preterm birth, and infection on placental histopathological phenotypes are not yet well understood, despite the association between these conditions and poor offspring outcomes. We hypothesized that suboptimal maternal prepregnancy BMI and preterm birth (with and without infection) would associate with altered placental maturity and morphometry, and that altered placental maturity would associate with poor birth outcomes. Methods: Clinical data and human placentae were collected from 96 pregnancies where mothers were underweight, normal weight, overweight, or obese, without other major complications. Placental histopathological characteristics were scored by an anatomical pathologist. Associations between maternal BMI, placental pathology (immaturity and hypermaturity), placental morphometry, and infant outcomes were investigated for term and preterm births with and without infection. Results: Fetal capillary volumetric proportion was decreased, whereas the villous stromal volumetric proportion was increased in placentae from preterm pregnancies with chorioamnionitis compared to preterm placentae without chorioamnionitis. At term and preterm, pregnancies with maternal overweight and obesity had a high percentage increase in proportion of immature placentae compared to normal weight. Placental maturity did not associate with infant birth outcomes. We observed placental hypermaturity and altered placental morphometry among preterm pregnancies with chorioamnionitis, suggestive of altered placental development, which may inform about pregnancies susceptible to preterm birth and infection. Conclusions: Our data increase our understanding of how common metabolic exposures and preterm birth, in the absence of other comorbidities or complications, potentially contribute to poor pregnancy outcomes and developmental programming.