Quantifying the intersection of disability and homelessness in Massachusetts public schools in 2018-2019.

BACKGROUND: Homelessness has a major impact on the educational and health trajectories of children. Youth with disabilities may be especially vulnerable to experiencing homelessness, but little epidemiological work has been done to characterize dual disparity. Our goal was to describe the relationship between homelessness and disability among students (age 3-21) receiving public education in Massachusetts in 2018-2019. We evaluated the proportion of students with and without disabilities experiencing homelessness by county and school district. METHODS: We used publicly available data from the United States and Massachusetts Department's of Education. These data used the McKinney Vento Homelessness Assistance Act definition of homelessness which is a lack of fixed, adequate, and regular housing, and disability was determined by the presence of an individualized education program or individualized family service plan. We calculated percentages of students with and without disabilities experiencing homelessness at the state, county, and district level and calculated and mapped risk of homelessness comparing students and without disability. We also determined the occurrence of disability among those experiencing homelessness. RESULTS: In Massachusetts public schools, 3.5% of students with disabilities experienced homelessness compared with 2.4% of students without disabilities (relative risk 1.50, 95% CI: 1.47, 1.53). A greater proportion of students with disabilities experienced homelessness compared with students without disabilities in all counties. In sum, 24.8% of students experiencing homelessness had a reported disability. CONCLUSIONS: In Massachusetts public schools, a greater proportion of students with disabilities experience homelessness compared with students without disabilities, and disability is common among students experiencing homelessness. We hypothesize potential mechanisms, such as the financial cost of disability, that may lead to this finding. Findings support the need for additional funding and interventions for school districts and communities to better serve vulnerable students with disabilities experiencing homelessness.

Treatment of Legacy Nitrogen as a Compliance Option to Meet Chesapeake Bay TMDL Requirements.

In efforts to combat eutrophication, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has established aggressive nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment reduction goals for states and regulated dischargers within the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Chesapeake Bay jurisdictions are struggling to meet the nutrient (N, P) reduction goals. This paper evaluates the efficacy of removing legacy N from groundwater as a compliance strategy for three potential classes of "buyers" of N reductions in the Chesapeake Bay watershed: permitted point sources, permitted municipal stormwater systems (called MS4s), and state nonpoint source (NPS) managers. We compare denitrifying spring bioreactors with conventional agricultural and urban NPS removal technologies using evaluative criteria important to each of these buyers. Results indicate that spring bioreactors compare favorably to other N removal technologies based on cost effectiveness, administrative costs, and certainty of N removal performance. Most conventional NPS technologies provide greater ancillary benefits. On balance, denitrifying spring bioreactors add a valuable compliance option to those tasked with achieving Bay N reduction goals.

Export of nitrogen and phosphorus from golf courses: A review.

Mitigating the environmental impact of nonpoint source pollution from intensively managed urban and agricultural landscapes is of paramount concern to watershed managers. Golf course turfgrass systems, which receive significant fertilizer inputs, have been cited as significant sources of nutrient loading to groundwater and surface water, but a contemporary synthesis of golf course nutrient export rates is lacking. This review of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loss from golf courses and the factors affecting it aims to support watershed management efforts and decision making. We discuss previous literature reviews, examine seven golf course studies that quantify nutrient export from delineated drainage areas, and analyze the results of 40 turfgrass plot experiments. Studies were collected systematically and selected based on predetermined inclusion criteria. Combining evidence from both watershed- and plot-scale studies, typical inorganic N and P losses from golf courses via leaching and runoff are on the order of 2-12 kg ha-1 yr-1 and 0.1-1.0 kg ha-1 yr-1, respectively. Typical total N and P losses are around 2-20 kg ha-1 yr-1 and 1.5-5 kg ha-1 yr-1, respectively. However, the potential for large variation in export rates across 2-3 orders of magnitude must be emphasized. The body of turfgrass literature stresses the importance of best management practices (BMPs) related to applying fertilizer to match plant needs and reducing opportunities for its transport. Accounting for all sources of nutrients, especially soil P, in determining fertilizer application rates and avoiding excessive irrigation to prevent leaching of nutrients from the rootzone is particularly important. BMPs can also reduce nutrient leaching and runoff by controlling the movement of water across the landscape and promoting natural nutrient attenuation, such as with vegetative stream buffers.

Feasibility of Using Woodchip Bioreactors to Treat Legacy Nitrogen to Meet Chesapeake Bay Water Quality Goals.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has established aggressive nutrient reduction goals to achieve water quality objectives for the Chesapeake Bay estuary. Nitrogen (N) reduction goals are proving particularly difficult to meet with an additional 20.4 million kg of annual nitrogen reductions needed by 2025, and many of the easily achievable and low-cost N reductions have been realized. We assess the feasibility of employing woodchip denitrifying bioreactors to treat legacy N derived from spring discharge in the Mid-Atlantic region. We estimate that in excess of 6100 kg of soluble N is discharged daily from United States Geological Survey identified springs in four Mid-Atlantic states within the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Based on typical bioreactor removal efficiency (30-55%) and potentially treatable flows (<6000 m3/d), widespread adoption of bioreactors to treat legacy N from 231 springs could conservatively result in 420-770 kg N removed per day, while strategic adoption targeting 48 springs with N concentrations of at least 3 mg/L and flows of at least 500 m3/d could result in 322-590 kg N removed per day more cost-effectively and with far fewer installations. A cost analysis indicates bioreactors can be a cost-effective N removal strategy, generally removing N for less than $5/kg·y. Relative to other nonpoint source pollution control practices, bioreactors also offer the ability to remove larger quantities of N per installation and are more easily monitored to quantify N reductions.

Biochar fails to enhance nutrient removal in woodchip bioreactor columns following saturation.

Denitrifying bioreactors are edge-of-field structures that remove excess nitrogen (N) from intercepted agricultural drainage by supporting the activity of denitrifying microorganisms with a saturated organic carbon substrate. Although these bioreactors successfully mitigate N export, the typical woodchip systems have little effect on phosphorus (P), which is also often present in environmentally harmful quantities in drainage waters. Currently, the evidence that amending woodchip bioreactors with biochar enhances both N and P removal rates is mixed, but more work is required to test this hypothesis under controlled conditions. To determine the effect of biochar amendment on nitrate (NO3-N) and phosphate (PO4-P) removal in woodchip bioreactors, three media types-aged woodchips (W), 10% (B10) and 30% (B30) biochar by volume-were tested under different operational conditions during five-day laboratory trials with horizontal, flow-through columns. Nutrient removal was observed under different flow rates yielding hydraulic residence times of 3, 6, and 12 hours with four formulations of simulated agricultural drainage, all combination of 16.1 or 4.5 mg L-1 NO3-N and 1.9 or 0.6 mg L-1 PO4-P. Each unique treatment with respect to media type, HRT, and influent formulation was tested in triplicate using independent columns. All treatments successfully removed NO3-N, but PO4-P removal was inconsistent. Cumulative NO3-N removal efficiencies ranged 15-98% with an average removal rate of 11.0 g m-3 d-1; biochar amendment enhanced removal only in response to sufficiently high loading rates. Cumulative PO4-P removal efficiencies ranged from 66% removal to 170% export of the influent load; biochar addition was associated with increased export. These results indicate that pine-feedstock biochar poses a substantial increase to PO4-P leaching risk and only modestly enhances NO3-N removal given sufficiently high loading.

Performance of an under-loaded denitrifying bioreactor with biochar amendment.

Denitrifying bioreactors are recently-established agricultural best management practices with growing acceptance in the US Midwest but less studied in other agriculturally significant regions, such as the US Mid-Atlantic. A bioreactor was installed in the Virginia Coastal Plain to evaluate performance in this geographically novel region facing challenges managing nutrient pollution. The 25.3 m3 woodchip bed amended with 10% biochar (v/v) intercepted subsurface drainage from 6.5 ha cultivated in soy. Influent and effluent nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations and flowrate were monitored intensively during the second year of operation. Bed surface fluxes of greenhouse gases (GHGs) nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2) were measured periodically with the closed dynamic chamber technique. The bioreactor did not have a statistically or environmentally significant effect on TP export. Cumulative NO3-N removal efficiency (9.5%) and average removal rate (0.56 ±â€¯0.25 g m-3 d-1) were low relative to Midwest tile bioreactors, but comparable to installations in the Maryland Coastal Plain. Underperformance was attributed mainly to low NO3-N loading (mean 9.4 ±â€¯4.4 kg ha-1 yr-1), although intermittent flow, periods of low HRT, and low pH (mean 5.3) also likely contributed. N removal rates were correlated with influent NO3-N concentration and temperature, but decreased with hydraulic residence time, indicating that removal was often N-limited. GHG emissions were similar to other bioreactors and constructed wetlands and not considered environmentally concerning. This study suggests that expectations of NO3-N removal efficiency developed from bioreactors receiving moderate to high NO3-N loading with influent concentrations exceeding 10-20 mg L-1 are unlikely to be met by systems where N-limitation becomes significant.

Effect of Biochar on Nitrate Removal in a Pilot-Scale Denitrifying Bioreactor.

Denitrifying bioreactors (DNBRs) harness the natural capacity of microorganisms to convert bioavailable nitrogen (N) into inert nitrogen gas (N) by providing a suitable anaerobic habitat and an organic carbon energy source. Woodchip systems are reported to remove 2 to 22 g N m d, but the potential to enhance denitrification with alternative substrates holds promise. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of adding biochar, an organic carbon pyrolysis product, to an in-field, pilot-scale woodchip DNBR. Two 25-m DNBRs, one with woodchips and the other with woodchips and a 10% by volume addition of biochar, were installed on the Delmarva Peninsula, Virginia. Performance was assessed using flood-and-drain batch experiments. An initial release of N was observed during the establishment of both DNBRs, reflecting a start-up phenomenon observed in previous studies. Nitrate (NO-N) removal rates observed during nine batch experiments 4 to 22 mo after installation were 0.25 to 6.06 g N m d. The presence of biochar, temperature, and influent NO-N concentration were found to have significant effects on NO-N removal rates using a linear mixed effects model. The model predicts that biochar increases the rate of N removal when influent concentrations are above approximately 5 to 10 mg L NO-N but that woodchip DNBRs outperform biochar-amended DNBRs when influent concentrations are lower, possibly reflecting the release of N temporarily stored in the biochar matrix. These results indicate that in high N-yielding systems the addition of biochar to standard woodchip DNBRs has the potential to significantly increase N removal.

Enhanced nitrate and phosphate removal in a denitrifying bioreactor with biochar.

Denitrifying bioreactors (DNBRs) are an emerging technology used to remove nitrate-nitrogen (NO) from enriched waters by supporting denitrifying microorganisms with organic carbon in an anaerobic environment. Field-scale investigations have established successful removal of NO from agricultural drainage, but the potential for DNBRs to remediate excess phosphorus (P) exported from agricultural systems has not been addressed. We hypothesized that biochar addition to traditional woodchip DNBRs would enhance NO and P removal and reduce nitrous oxide (NO) emissions based on previous research demonstrating reduced leaching of NO and P and lower greenhouse gas production associated with biochar amendment of agricultural soils. Nine laboratory-scale DNBRs, a woodchip control, and eight different woodchip-biochar treatments were used to test the effect of biochar on nutrient removal. The biochar treatments constituted a full factorial design of three factors (biochar source material [feedstock], particle size, and application rate), each with two levels. Statistical analysis by repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant effect of biochar, time, and their interaction on NO and dissolved P removal. Average P removal of 65% was observed in the biochar treatments by 18 h, after which the concentrations remained stable, compared with an 8% increase in the control after 72 h. Biochar addition resulted in average NO removal of 86% after 18 h and 97% after 72 h, compared with only 13% at 18 h and 75% at 72 h in the control. Biochar addition also resulted in significantly lower NO production. These results suggest that biochar can reduce the design residence time by enhancing nutrient removal rates.

Homelessness and Disability in Public-School Students.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify students with disabilities experiencing homelessness in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic US state and district public schools and compare them with those without disabilities. METHODS: Data were compiled from state departments of education and federal homelessness data and were merged by using the Local Education Agency identifier. We calculated the proportion of students with and without disabilities experiencing homelessness and corresponding relative risk 95% confidence intervals. We examined changes in homelessness in Massachusetts counties compared with the 2018 to 2019 school year. RESULTS: Across the 7 states and Washington, DC, 4.7% of students with disabilities experienced homelessness, 58% greater than the percentage of students without disabilities (95% confidence interval 1.57-1.59). The highest proportion of students with disabilities experiencing homelessness was in Washington, DC, and New York, with the lowest proportion in Connecticut. There was little change comparing 2018 to 2019 with 2019 to 2020 statistics in Massachusetts. CONCLUSIONS: Quantifying students with disabilities experiencing homelessness provides policymakers with valuable information to be able to act to better support these students. Variations by state/district and time highlight the need for continued data collection and aggregation.