Interleukin 17 acts in synergy with B cell-activating factor to influence B cell biology and the pathophysiology of systemic lupus erythematosus.

Studies have suggested involvement of interleukin 17 (IL-17) in autoimmune diseases, although its effect on B cell biology has not been clearly established. Here we demonstrate that IL-17 alone or in combination with B cell-activating factor controlled the survival and proliferation of human B cells and their differentiation into immunoglobulin-secreting cells. This effect was mediated mainly through the nuclear factor-kappaB-regulated transcription factor Twist-1. In support of the relevance of our observations and the potential involvement of IL-17 in B cell biology, we found that the serum of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus had higher concentrations of IL-17 than did the serum of healthy people and that IL-17 abundance correlated with the disease severity of systemic lupus erythematosus.

TLR3 and Rig-like receptor on myeloid dendritic cells and Rig-like receptor on human NK cells are both mandatory for production of IFN-gamma in response to double-stranded RNA.

Cross-talk between NK cells and dendritic cells (DCs) is critical for the potent therapeutic response to dsRNA, but the receptors involved remained controversial. We show in this paper that two dsRNAs, polyadenylic-polyuridylic acid and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)], similarly engaged human TLR3, whereas only poly(I:C) triggered human RIG-I and MDA5. Both dsRNA enhanced NK cell activation within PBMCs but only poly(I:C) induced IFN-gamma. Although myeloid DCs (mDCs) were required for NK cell activation, induction of cytolytic potential and IFN-gamma production did not require contact with mDCs but was dependent on type I IFN and IL-12, respectively. Poly(I:C) but not polyadenylic-polyuridylic acid synergized with mDC-derived IL-12 for IFN-gamma production by acting directly on NK cells. Finally, the requirement of both TLR3 and Rig-like receptor (RLR) on mDCs and RLRs but not TLR3 on NK cells for IFN-gamma production was demonstrated using TLR3- and Cardif-deficient mice and human RIG-I-specific activator. Thus, we report the requirement of cotriggering TLR3 and RLR on mDCs and RLRs on NK cells for a pathogen product to induce potent innate cell activation.

TLR2 engagement on CD8 T cells enables generation of functional memory cells in response to a suboptimal TCR signal.

TLR are involved in the detection of microbial infection as well as endogenous ligands that signal tissue and cell damage in mammals. This recognition plays an essential role in innate immune response and the initiation of adaptive immune response. We have previously shown that murine CD8 T cells express TLR2, and that costimulation of Ag-activated CD8 T cells with TLR2 ligands enhances their proliferation, survival, and effector functions. We also demonstrated that TLR2 engagement on CD8 T cells significantly reduces their need for costimulatory signals delivered by APC. We show in this study that TLR2 engagement on CD8 T cells lowers the Ag concentration required for optimal activation, and converts a partial activation into a productive process leading to a significant expansion of cells. Using altered peptide ligands, we demonstrate that TLR2 engagement increases CD8 T cell activation and enables the generation of functional memory cells in response to a low TCR signal. This increased activation is associated with an augmented activation of the PI3K. Taken together, our results demonstrate that TLR2 engagement on CD8 T cells lowers their activation threshold for TCR signal strength and enables efficient memory cell generation in response to a weak TCR signal.

Characterization of a CD44/CD122int memory CD8 T cell subset generated under sterile inflammatory conditions.

Most memory CD8 T cell subsets that have been hitherto defined are generated in response to infectious pathogens. In this study, we have characterized the CD8 T cells that survive priming conditions, devoid of pathogen-derived danger signals. In both a TCR-transgenic model and a model of contact hypersensitivity, we show that the priming of naive CD8 T cells under sterile inflammatory conditions generates memory. The corresponding memory CD8 T cells can be identified by their intermediate expression levels of CD44 and CD122. We also show that CD44/122(int) memory CD8 T cells spontaneously develop in wild type mice and that they display intermediate levels of several other memory traits including functional (IFN-gamma secretion capacity, CCL5 messenger stores), phenotypic, and molecular (T-bet and eomesodermin expression levels) features. We finally show that they correspond to an early differentiation stage and can further differentiate in CD44/122(high) memory T cells. Altogether, our results identify a new memory CD8 T cell subset that is generated under sterile inflammatory conditions and involved in the recall contact hypersensitivity reactions that are responsible for allergic contact dermatitis.

C-terminal residues regulate localization and function of the antiapoptotic protein Bfl-1.

Unlike other antiapoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family, Bfl-1 does not contain a well defined C-terminal transmembrane domain, and whether the C-terminal tail of Bfl-1 functions as a membrane anchor is not yet clearly established. The molecular modeling study of the full-length Bfl-1 performed within this work suggests that Bfl-1 may co-exist in two distinct conformational states: one in which its C-terminal helix alpha9 is inserted in the hydrophobic groove formed by the BH1-3 domains of Bfl-1 and one with its C terminus. Parallel analysis of the subcellular localization of Bfl-1 indicates that even if Bfl-1 may co-exist in two distinct conformational states, most of the endogenous protein is tightly associated with the mitochondria by its C terminus in both healthy and apoptotic peripheral blood lymphocytes as well as in malignant B cell lines. However, the helix alpha9 of Bfl-1, and therefore the binding of Bfl-1 to mitochondria, is not absolutely required for the antiapoptotic activity of Bfl-1. A particular feature of Bfl-1 is the amphipathic character of its C-terminal helix alpha9. Our data clearly indicate that this property of helix alpha9 is required for the anchorage of Bfl-1 to the mitochondria but also regulates the antiapoptotic function Bfl-1.

TLR2 engagement on memory CD8(+) T cells improves their cytokine-mediated proliferation and IFN-gamma secretion in the absence of Ag.

Persistence of memory CD8(+) T cells is known to be largely controlled by common gamma chain cytokines, such as IL-2, IL-7 and IL-15. However, other molecules may be involved in this phenomenon. We show here that TLR2(-/-) mice have a decreased frequency of memory phenotype CD8(+) T cells when compared with WT mice. This prompted us to investigate the role of TLR2 in the homeostasis of memory CD8(+) T cells. We describe here a new TLR2-dependent mechanism which, in the absence of specific antigen, directly controls memory CD8(+) T-cell proliferation and IFN-gamma secretion. We demonstrate that TLR2 engagement on memory CD8(+) T cells increases their proliferation and expansion induced by IL-7 both in vitro and in vivo. We also show that TLR2 ligands act in synergy with IL-2 to induce IFN-gamma secretion in vitro. Both conclusions are obtained with spontaneously arising memory phenotype and antigen-specific memory CD8(+) T cells. Altogether, our data support the idea that continuous TLR2 signaling in response to microbial stimuli or endogenous danger signals might directly contribute to the maintenance of the diversity memory CD8(+) T cells in the organism.

Synthesis and biological activities of new di- and trimeric quinoline derivatives.

The synthesis of non-peptidic helix mimetics based on a trimeric quinoline scaffold is described. The ability of these new compounds, as well as their synthetic dimeric intermediates, to bind to various members of the Bcl-2 protein anti-apoptotic group is also evaluated. The most interesting derivative of this new series (compound A) inhibited Bcl-x(L)/Bak, Bcl-x(L)/Bax and Bcl-x(L)/Bid interactions with IC(50) values around 25 µM.

Control of proliferation by Bcl-2 family members.

The anti-proliferative effect of Bcl-2 acts mainly at the level of the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Deletions and point mutations in the bcl-2 gene show that the anti-proliferative activity of Bcl-2, can in some cases, be dissociated from its anti-apoptotic function. This indicates that the effect of Bcl-2 on cell cycle progression can be a direct effect and not only a consequence of its anti-apoptotic activity. Bcl-2 appears to mediate its anti-proliferative effect by acting on both signal transduction pathways (NFAT, ERK) and on specific cell cycle regulators (p27, p130).

Regulation of A1/Bfl-1 expression in peripheral splenic B cells.

We analyzed here the expression of the prosurvival Bcl-2 homologue A1 in peripheral B cell compartment. We observed that A1 mRNA are highly expressed in peripheral B cells as compared with other anti-apoptotic genes of the Bcl-2 family such as bcl-xl and bcl-2 itself. The expression of A1 is up-regulated in immature B cells at the transition between transitional type 1 (T1) and type 2 (T2) cells, and remained highly expressed in mature (M) B cells. We, therefore, analyzed the effect of B cell antigen receptor (BCR) and BAFF receptor (BAFF-R) engagement on the regulation of A1 in total B220(+) cells but also FACS-sorted immature T1, T2 and M B cells. We demonstrated that only BCR engagement up-regulated the expression of A1 mRNA and protein. These results suggest that A1 may play a key role in antigen-dependent signals that are required for survival and/or proliferation of peripheral B cells.

µ-Calpain conversion of antiapoptotic Bfl-1 (BCL2A1) into a prodeath factor reveals two distinct alpha-helices inducing mitochondria-mediated apoptosis.

Anti-apoptotic Bfl-1 and pro-apoptotic Bax, two members of the Bcl-2 family sharing a similar structural fold, are classically viewed as antagonist regulators of apoptosis. However, both proteins were reported to be death inducers following cleavage by the cysteine protease µ-calpain. Here we demonstrate that calpain-mediated cleavage of full-length Bfl-1 induces the release of C-terminal membrane active α-helices that are responsible for its conversion into a pro-apoptotic factor. A careful comparison of the different membrane-active regions present in the Bfl-1 truncated fragments with homologous domains of Bax show that helix α5, but not α6, of Bfl-1 induces cell death and cytochrome c release from purified mitochondria through a Bax/Bak-dependent mechanism. In contrast, both helices α5 and α6 of Bax permeabilize mitochondria regardless of the presence of Bax or Bak. Moreover, we provide evidence that the α9 helix of Bfl-1 promotes cytochrome c release and apoptosis through a unique membrane-destabilizing action whereas Bax-α9 does not display such activities. Hence, despite a common 3D-structure, C-terminal toxic domains present on Bfl-1 and Bax function in a dissimilar manner to permeabilize mitochondria and induce apoptosis. These findings provide insights for designing therapeutic approaches that could exploit the cleavage of endogenous Bcl-2 family proteins or the use of Bfl-1/Bax-derived peptides to promote tumor cell clearance.

Telomere deregulations possess cytogenetic, phenotype, and prognostic specificities in acute leukemias.

OBJECTIVE: Telomeres are protected by tightly regulated factors and elongated by telomerase. Short and/or deprotected chromosomes are recombinogenic and thereby cancer prone. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Together with the quantification of telomerase activity (TA), measuring telomere length (TL) and expression of the genes that govern telomere protection and elongation are useful for assessing telomere homeostasis. RESULTS: By these means we demonstrate that TL, hTERT, and TA are in the order acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) > T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) > B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) > T-ALL > AML, and B-ALL > AML > T-ALL. AML0 and AML3 display the lowest amounts of hTERT transcripts, and ALL and AML cells with cytogenetic abnormalities possess the shortest telomeres. hTERT expression includes phenotype-specific RNA maturation and correlates with TA but not with TL. A wide ratio of TA to hTERT expression between leukemia subtypes suggests phenotype-specific hTERT post-transcriptional deregulations. B- and T-ALL overexpress Ku70 and Pinx1, T-ALL PTOP and RAP1, and B-ALL TRF2, the expression of which is significantly higher in cases with abnormal karyotype. hTERT transcription and TL correlate with response to intensive chemotherapy, and hTERT and RAD50 are independent prognostic factors for survival. CONCLUSIONS: Each leukemia subtype possesses specific telomere dysregulations that rely on phenotype, karyotype, response to treatment, and survival.

TLR2 engagement on CD8 T cells lowers the threshold for optimal antigen-induced T cell activation.

TLR have a crucial role in the detection of microbial infection in mammals. Until recently, most investigations on TLR have focused on cells of the innate immune system and on the role of TLR in the initiation of antigen-specific responses following recognition of microbial products by APC. Here, we report that murine T cells express TLR1, TLR2, TLR6, TLR7 and TLR9 mRNA. Using CD8 T cells from F5 TCR-transgenic mice, we demonstrate that the lipopeptide Pam(3)CysSK(4) (Pam), a synthetic analog of bacterial and mycoplasmal lipoproteins that recognizes TLR1/2 complex, costimulates antigen-activated T cells. Costimulation with Pam permits an increased cell proliferation and survival associated with a sustained CD25 expression and an enhanced expression of Bcl-xL anti-apoptotic protein. In addition, we show that costimulation with Pam up-regulates IFN-gamma production but also granzyme B secretion and cytotoxic activity of antigen-activated T cells, indicating that TLR2 engagement enhances the major effector functions of CD8 T cells. Finally, we demonstrate that TLR2 engagement on T cells lowers the activation threshold for costimulatory signals delivered by APC.

Mycophenolic acid inhibits IL-2-dependent T cell proliferation, but not IL-2-dependent survival and sensitization to apoptosis.

Mycophenolic acid (MPA), the active metabolite of the immunosuppressive drug mycophenolate mofetil, is a selective inhibitor of inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase type II, a de novo purine nucleotide synthesis enzyme expressed in T and B lymphocytes and up-regulated upon cell activation. In this study, we report that the blockade of guanosine nucleotide synthesis by MPA inhibits mitogen-induced proliferation of PBL, an effect fully reversed by addition of guanosine and shared with mizoribine, another inhibitor of inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase. Because MPA does not inhibit early TCR-mediated activation events, such as CD25 expression and IL-2 synthesis, we investigated how it interferes with cytokine-dependent proliferation and survival. In activated lymphoblasts that are dependent on IL-2 or IL-15 for their proliferation, MPA does not impair signaling events such as of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 and Stat5 phosphorylation, but inhibits down-regulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27(Kip1). Therefore, in activated lymphoblasts, MPA specifically interferes with cytokine-dependent signals that control cell cycle and blocks activated T cells in the mid-G(1) phase of the cell cycle. Although it blocks IL-2-mediated proliferation, MPA does not inhibit cell survival and Bcl-x(L) up-regulation by IL-2 or other cytokines whose receptors share the common gamma-chain (CD132). Finally, MPA does not interfere with IL-2-dependent acquisition of susceptibility to CD95-mediated apoptosis and degradation of cellular FLIP. Therefore, MPA has unique functional properties not shared by other immunosuppressive drugs interfering with IL-2R signaling events such as rapamycin and CD25 mAbs.