Factors influencing terrestriality in primates of the Americas and Madagascar.

Among mammals, the order Primates is exceptional in having a high taxonomic richness in which the taxa are arboreal, semiterrestrial, or terrestrial. Although habitual terrestriality is pervasive among the apes and African and Asian monkeys (catarrhines), it is largely absent among monkeys of the Americas (platyrrhines), as well as galagos, lemurs, and lorises (strepsirrhines), which are mostly arboreal. Numerous ecological drivers and species-specific factors are suggested to set the conditions for an evolutionary shift from arboreality to terrestriality, and current environmental conditions may provide analogous scenarios to those transitional periods. Therefore, we investigated predominantly arboreal, diurnal primate genera from the Americas and Madagascar that lack fully terrestrial taxa, to determine whether ecological drivers (habitat canopy cover, predation risk, maximum temperature, precipitation, primate species richness, human population density, and distance to roads) or species-specific traits (body mass, group size, and degree of frugivory) associate with increased terrestriality. We collated 150,961 observation hours across 2,227 months from 47 species at 20 sites in Madagascar and 48 sites in the Americas. Multiple factors were associated with ground use in these otherwise arboreal species, including increased temperature, a decrease in canopy cover, a dietary shift away from frugivory, and larger group size. These factors mostly explain intraspecific differences in terrestriality. As humanity modifies habitats and causes climate change, our results suggest that species already inhabiting hot, sparsely canopied sites, and exhibiting more generalized diets, are more likely to shift toward greater ground use.

Molecular phylogeny and systematics of bald uakaris, genus Cacajao (Primates: Pitheciidae), with the description of a new species.

Bald uakaris, genus Cacajao, are Amazonian primates currently classified as one species and four subspecies based on the patterns of pelage coloration. In this study, we test if their current taxonomy is represented by the phylogenetic relationship of the main lineages retrieved from molecular data. We included, for the first time, all bald uakari taxa in a mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and genome-wide (ddRAD) phylogenetic analyses. We also examined the pattern of pelage colouration in specimens from zoological collections. Having determined the number of lineages using Maximum Likelihood and the species tree using coalescent analyses, we test their divergence time using a Bayesian approach. While the cytochrome b analysis only recovered two clades, the ddRAD analysis supported the reciprocal monophyly of five lineages of bald uakaris, with all clades including only individuals with distinct and exclusive diagnostic phenotypic characters. We found that species diversification in Cacajao occurred during the last 300 Kya and may have been influenced by the formation of rivers and flooded forests in western Amazonia. We propose that the four bald uakari subspecies currently recognised can be upgraded to species level and we describe the white uakaris from the basin of the Rio Tarauacá as a new species.

Assessment of mammal reproduction for hunting sustainability through community-based sampling of species in the wild.

Wildlife subsistence hunting is a major source of protein for tropical rural populations and a prominent conservation issue. The intrinsic rate of natural increase. (rmax ) of populations is a key reproductive parameter in the most used assessments of hunting sustainability. However, researchers face severe difficulties in obtaining reproductive data in the wild, so these assessments often rely on classic reproductive rates calculated mostly from studies of captive animals conducted 30 years ago. The result is a flaw in almost 50% of studies, which hampers management decision making. We conducted a 15-year study in the Amazon in which we used reproductive data from the genitalia of 950 hunted female mammals. Genitalia were collected by local hunters. We examined tissue from these samples to estimate birthrates for wild populations of the 10 most hunted mammals. We compared our estimates with classic measures and considered the utility of the use of rmax in sustainability assessments. For woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii) and tapir (Tapirus terrestris), wild birthrates were similar to those from captive populations, whereas birthrates for other ungulates and lowland-paca (Cuniculus paca) were significantly lower than previous estimates. Conversely, for capuchin monkeys (Sapajus macrocephalus), agoutis (Dasyprocta sp.), and coatis (Nasua nasua), our calculated reproductive rates greatly exceeded often-used values. Researchers could keep applying classic measures compatible with our estimates, but for other species previous estimates of rmax may not be appropriate. We suggest that data from local studies be used to set hunting quotas. Our maximum rates of population growth in the wild correlated with body weight, which suggests that our method is consistent and reliable. Integration of this method into community-based wildlife management and the training of local hunters to record pregnancies in hunted animals could efficiently generate useful information of life histories of wild species and thus improve management of natural resources.

Highly polymorphic colour vision in a New World monkey with red facial skin, the bald uakari (Cacajao calvus).

Colour vision is highly variable in New World monkeys (NWMs). Evidence for the adaptive basis of colour vision in this group has largely centred on environmental features such as foraging benefits for differently coloured foods or predator detection, whereas selection on colour vision for sociosexual communication is an alternative hypothesis that has received little attention. The colour vision of uakaris (Cacajao) is of particular interest because these monkeys have the most dramatic red facial skin of any primate, as well as a unique fission/fusion social system and a specialist diet of seeds. Here, we investigate colour vision in a wild population of the bald uakari,C. calvus, by genotyping the X-linked opsin locus. We document the presence of a polymorphic colour vision system with an unprecedented number of functional alleles (six), including a novel allele with a predicted maximum spectral sensitivity of 555 nm. This supports the presence of strong balancing selection on different alleles at this locus. We consider different hypotheses to explain this selection. One possibility is that trichromacy functions in sexual selection, enabling females to choose high-quality males on the basis of red facial coloration. In support of this, there is some evidence that health affects facial coloration in uakaris, as well as a high prevalence of blood-borne parasitism in wild uakari populations. Alternatively, the low proportion of heterozygous female trichromats in the population may indicate selection on different dichromatic phenotypes, which might be related to cryptic food coloration. We have uncovered unexpected diversity in the last major lineage of NWMs to be assayed for colour vision, which will provide an interesting system to dissect adaptation of polymorphic trichromacy.

Male-male affiliation and cooperation characterize the social behavior of the large-bodied pitheciids, Chiropotes and Cacajao: A review.

Cooperation and affiliation between males may be key to the evolution of large multimale-multifemale primate groups in some species. Cacajao and Chiropotes form multimale-multifemale groups larger than those of most other platyrrhines (Cacajao: over 150 and Chiropotes: up to 80 individuals), and groups exhibit a high degree of fission-fusion dynamics. In both genera, males engage in affiliative, sex-specific behaviors and form all-male parties. Males in both genera also have conspicuous genitalia but can demonstrate sexual crypsis, or mimicry, wherein testes are retracted, resembling labia. Observed egalitarian interactions among males suggest that there is scramble competition for access to females, and aggression between males is uncommon relative to other social primates. As of yet, there are no genetic data to clarify dispersal patterns, and while relatedness among males would in part explain their affiliative relationships, there is some limited evidence for dispersal by males in Cacajao. In this review of recent studies of male-male social interactions in Chiropotes and Cacajao, we posit that the ability to maintain large groups in these genera may be related to the affiliative and perhaps coalitionary relationships between males, who may or may not be related. Affiliative male-male relationships may allow for monopolization of groups of females and facilitate group cohesion by reducing intragroup aggression; however data on male-male interactions with identified individuals will be required to determine patterns of affiliation, while genetic studies may be the most practical way of determining dispersal patterns for these genera.

Geographic comparison of plant genera used in frugivory among the pitheciids Cacajao, Callicebus, Chiropotes, and Pithecia.

Pitheciids are known for their frugivorous diets, but there has been no broad-scale comparison of fruit genera used by these primates that range across five geographic regions in South America. We compiled 31 fruit lists from data collected from 18 species (three Cacajao, six Callicebus, five Chiropotes, and four Pithecia) at 26 study sites in six countries. Together, these lists contained 455 plant genera from 96 families. We predicted that 1) closely related Chiropotes and Cacajao would demonstrate the greatest similarity in fruit lists; 2) pitheciids living in closer geographic proximity would have greater similarities in fruit lists; and 3) fruit genus richness would be lower in lists from forest fragments than continuous forests. Fruit genus richness was greatest for the composite Chiropotes list, even though Pithecia had the greatest overall sampling effort. We also found that the Callicebus composite fruit list had lower similarity scores in comparison with the composite food lists of the other three genera (both within and between geographic areas). Chiropotes and Pithecia showed strongest similarities in fruit lists, followed by sister taxa Chiropotes and Cacajao. Overall, pitheciids in closer proximity had more similarities in their fruit list, and this pattern was evident in the fruit lists for both Callicebus and Chiropotes. There was no difference in the number of fruit genera used by pitheciids in habitat fragments and continuous forest. Our findings demonstrate that pitheciids use a variety of fruit genera, but phylogenetic and geographic patterns in fruit use are not consistent across all pitheciid genera. This study represents the most extensive examination of pitheciid fruit consumption to date, but future research is needed to investigate the extent to which the trends in fruit genus richness noted here are attributable to habitat differences among study sites, differences in feeding ecology, or a combination of both.

Low birthrates and high levels of female reproductive inactivity may characterize the reproductive biology of wild Peruvian red uakaris (Cacajao calvus ucayalii).

BACKGROUND: Birthrates are key parameters for population models and hunting sustainability analyses frequently used in conservation, but for many rare species, these data do not exist. We examine the reproductive organs of endangered red uakari monkeys to calculate birthrates in the wild. METHODS: We collected reproductive organs from wild uakari monkeys hunted for subsistence by indigenous hunters and examined them for embryos or fetuses. We extrapolated birth dates to test for breeding seasonality and calculated birthrates. RESULTS: Breeding was seasonal, and birthrates were low relative to other neotropical primates. We recorded unexpectedly high numbers of reproductively inactive females compared to other neotropical monkeys. CONCLUSIONS: Reproductive inactivity could be due to delayed reproduction or long periods of lactation. Resource availability may also play a role. Slow reproduction and low birthrates in uakaris, relative other primates, could explain why uakaris have a patchy distribution and appear vulnerable to disturbance.

Intestinal helminths in wild Peruvian red uakari monkeys (Cacajao calvus ucayalii) in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon.

Parasites are important in the management of the health of primate populations. We examined 36 fecal samples from Peruvian red uakari monkeys (Cacajao calvus ucayalii) collected from wild animals in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. Samples were positive for helminth infection. Nematodes egg: Strongyloididae, Trypanoxyuris sp., Spirurid, and a cestode egg were identified.

Evaluating the fakability of a conditional reasoning test of addiction proneness.

The quest to assess personality objectively is riddled with challenges. However, conditional reasoning (CR) methodology takes an innovative approach to personality measurement by indirectly evaluating the cognitive biases associated with specific dispositional traits. In addition to demonstrating strong criterion-related validities, the CR format has been shown to be more resistant to response distortion than traditional self-report measures so long as indirect measurement is maintained. The present study evaluated the necessity of maintaining the indirect nature of a CR-based measure of addiction proneness. Results indicated that disclosing the purpose of assessment yielded significant mean shifts on a CR-based measure of addiction proneness compared to those of an uninformed group. Specifically, when the construct of interest was made explicit, participants could identify the keyed response options when instructed to do so. These findings further underscore the necessity of maintaining indirect measurement when administering CR measures.

Beyond Men's Experiences: Scale Development and Psychometric Testing of the Fitness in Nursing Scale-Men (FiNS-M).

Background and Purpose: Men believe they are perceived as unfit for nursing. No scales exist to measure perceptions of men's fitness for nursing. Additionally, women have been largely excluded from this area of inquiry. This study's purpose was to develop and test the psychometric properties of the Fitness in Nursing Scale for Men. Methods: Six hundred thirty-five nurses participated. Scale development entailed concept clarification, item development, and scale testing. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis suggested a two-factor structure (F1: nursing fitness and F2: strengths of men in nursing) which demonstrated good model fit, root mean square error of approximation = .059, 90% CI (.056, .063), standardized root mean square residual = .055, comparative fit index = .932, Tucker-Lewis index = .927, and ωt = .98. Invariance held. Latent means were not significantly different for women (M = 5.90) compared with men (M = 5.92). Conclusions: Findings suggest men are perceived as fit for nursing, but results are inconsistent with men's qualitative experiences. Future research should attempt to reconcile the disagreement. Findings can inform cultural awareness strategies in the workplace and classroom.

Functional morphology of the female genital organs in the peruvian red uakari monkey (Cacajao calvus ucayalii).

Functional morphology may provide important information that could improve methodologies for the diagnosis of the reproductive phase of females, and develop assisted breeding techniques for wildlife. This study examined features of genital organs in 19 Peruvian red uakari monkey (Cacajao calvus ucayalii) females in different reproductive stages, collected from wild animals hunted for food by rural communities in the North-eastern Peruvian Amazon, in order to provide knowledge on the reproductive physiology of this species. The observed mean ovulation rate was 1.4 follicles, and the observed maximal follicle diameter was 0.8 cm. After ovulation, the matured follicle luteinizes resulting in functional CL. In case of oocyte fertilization, the pregnancy CL grows to a maximum of 1.2 cm in diameter, and luteal volume per female decreases related to the advance of pregnancy. Pregnant females also present follicular activity until late pregnancy, but non-ovulated follicles do not undergo atretic processes and apparently transform to accessory CL, resulting in a contribution of 30% of the total luteal volume. All pregnant females delivered a single fetus at term, resulting in a rate of reproductive wastage of 20% of oocytes or embryos. The endometrium and the endometrial glands in non-pregnant females in the follicular phase show a significant increase related to the follicular growth, reaching a high proliferation in non-pregnant females in the luteal phase. The red uakari monkey showed different vaginal epithelium features in accordance with the reproductive state of the female, suggesting that vaginal cytology could be a successful methodology with which to characterize the estrous cycle of this species. The present reproductive evaluation of the Peruvian red uakari monkey provides important information that could improve the development of assisted reproductive techniques in non-human primates.

Anatomicohistological characteristics of the tubular genital organs of the female woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii).

Functional morphology of the reproductive organs is a key component for the better understanding of reproductive patterns as well to maximize reproductive efficiency and to develop assisted breeding techniques adapted to wildlife. This study examined anatomical and histological characteristics of genital organs of 60 Poeppig's woolly monkey females in the wild in different reproductive stages, collected by rural hunters in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. The endometrium, the endometrial glands, and the myometrium showed a significant increase in size related to the follicular growth. In nonpregnant females in the follicular phase, the endometrium, the endometrial glands, and the myometrium showed a significant increase related to the follicular growth. Nonpregnant females in the luteal phase had a thicker endometrium, a greater proliferation of endometrial glands, and a thicker myometrium, compared to females in the follicular phase. Nonpregnant females with small antral follicles presented high amounts of collagen beneath the endometrial epithelium, a sign of endometrial regeneration after menstruation that could be useful for the diagnosis of the reproductive phase in this species. A larger proportion of secreting cervical glands was observed in pregnant females compared to other females. The cervical mucous secretion occupied the lumen of the endocervical canal, assuring that no material could enter the uterus during gestation. The Poeppig's woolly monkey showed different vaginal epithelium features in accordance with the reproductive state of the female, suggesting that vaginal cytology could be a successful methodology with which to characterize the estrous cycle of wild primates. The present reproductive evaluation of Poeppig's woolly monkey provides important information that could improve the methodologies for the diagnosis of the reproductive phase of females, the assisted reproductive techniques in non-human primates, and could also give us opportunity for comparative studies and an insight into the evolution of animal reproductive biology, including humans.

Terrestrial activity in pitheciins (Cacajao, Chiropotes, and Pithecia).

Neotropical monkeys of the genera Cacajao, Chiropotes, and Pithecia (Pitheciidae) are considered to be highly arboreal, spending most of their time feeding and traveling in the upper canopy. Until now, the use of terrestrial substrates has not been analyzed in detail in this group. Here, we review the frequency of terrestrial use among pitheciin taxa to determine the ecological and social conditions that might lead to such behavior. We collated published and unpublished data from 14 taxa in the three genera. Data were gleaned from 53 published studies (including five on multiple pitheciin genera) and personal communications of unpublished data distributed across 31 localities. Terrestrial activity was reported in 61% of Pithecia field studies (11 of 18), in 34% of Chiropotes studies (10 of 29), and 36% of Cacajao studies (4 of 11). Within Pithecia, terrestrial behavior was more frequently reported in smaller species (e.g. P. pithecia) that are vertical clingers and leapers and make extensive use of the understory than in in the larger bodied canopy dwellers of the western Amazon (e.g. P. irrorata). Terrestrial behavior in Pithecia also occurred more frequently and lasted longer than in Cacajao or Chiropotes. An apparent association was found between flooded habitats and terrestrial activity and there is evidence of the development of a "local pattern" of terrestrial use in some populations. Seasonal fruit availability also may stimulate terrestrial behavior. Individuals also descended to the ground when visiting mineral licks, escaping predators, and responding to accidents such as a dropped infant. Overall, the results of this review emphasize that terrestrial use is rare among the pitheciins in general and is usually associated with the exploitation of specific resources or habitat types.

Environmental predictors of filarial infection in Amazonian primates: Ecological factors and primate filarial infection.

Filarial nematode infections are common in primates, but have received little attention in the Neotropics. Epidemiological data on filarial infections in primates are still too sparse to fully understand the complex of this parasitism, especially because of the difficulty in studying the ecology and epidemiology of wild primates.. We describe natural infections by Dipetalonema parasitizing 211 primates belonging to eight free-living primate genera in Amazonia, and assess the relationships between parasitic indicators and climatic (rainfall and river level), ecological (fruiting periods of plants) and biological (sex, species' body mass, group size and density) factors. The overall prevalence was 64.4% (95% CI: 64.0 - 64.9); parasitic mean abundance (N filariae per individual) and parasitic mean intensity (N filariae per infected host) of infection were 11.9 (95% CI: 8.3 - 15.6) and 18.4 (95% CI: 13.4 - 23.4) filariae/individual, respectively. Although we observed differences in parasitic parameters among primate genera, there was no correlation between parasitic parameters with density, body mass or group size. Sapajus, Cebus and Lagothrix had the highest prevalence and parasitic mean intensity. Using Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii, the most sampled species (n = 92), as a model, we found that the number of filariae per infected host was associated with fruit production in swamp forests during the dry season, the time of food scarcity. The long periods of food shortage may cause environmental stress on primates, impairing their immune defenses and leading to increased parasite load but not affecting infection prevalence. However, the lack of information on vector ecology, key to understand risk factors associated to infection rate, prevents confirming the existence of an infection pattern dependent on food availability.

The cognitive underpinnings of addiction.

A new conditional reasoning measure was developed to evaluate the role of implicit biases in perpetuating addictive behavior. Data (N = 669) were collected in 2005 from two samples in a suburban area: individuals with a known history of chemical dependency and individuals from the general population. Results indicated a strong correlation between overall test scores and group membership (r(pb) = .48), which increased when the groups' demographic characteristics were equalized (r(pb) = .65). Overall, findings suggest that addiction-prone individuals rely on a distinct set of cognitive biases that rationalize self-destructive behavior. The study's limitations are noted and implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The socio-cultural significance of mineral licks to the Maijuna of the Peruvian Amazon: implications for the sustainable management of hunting.

BACKGROUND: The overhunting of wild species is a major threat to biodiversity in the Amazon; yet, managed, sustainable hunting is widely considered part of the solution to conserving wildlife populations. Hunting is both a culturally important activity for Indigenous people and provides an important food source. Mineral licks, a focal point of hunting in Amazonia, are naturally occurring areas in the forest where animals come to obtain essential minerals or clays that are thought to neutralize plant-based alkaloids. We sought to better understand the socio-cultural importance of mineral licks to the Maijuna Indigenous group to inform the sustainable management of this habitat and associated wildlife populations. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and participatory mapping were carried out with hunters to assess the significance of mineral licks and their associated animal resources as well as to determine how the relationship that the Maijuna have with mineral licks has changed over time. RESULTS: Mineral licks are culturally significant and useful to the Maijuna in a variety of ways. Hunters target these areas year-round both during the day and night, and animals killed are consumed for subsistence and sold to generate income. The spatial use of mineral licks across the landscape is determined on the generational family level, with families maintaining exclusive use of selected mineral licks and excluding access by other hunters. The Maijuna also have traditional beliefs for why animals visit mineral licks, which is linked to the traditional Maijuna story of the creation of the first tapir. The relationship that the Maijuna have with mineral licks has changed considerably over time, which is observed through changes in hunting technologies and methods as well as the loss of traditional knowledge and beliefs. CONCLUSIONS: Traditional and current Maijuna hunting conventions, in which families maintain exclusive use of selected mineral licks, likely reduce the probability of overexploitation of animal populations. Community-based management plans for mineral licks in Maijuna lands and beyond must incorporate and account for the multiple cultural and economic needs of local communities while also striving toward ecological sustainability. Country-wide strategies to conserving forests and using them sustainably should aim to ensure land tenure for rural peoples and encourage management that incorporates traditional sustainable hunting conventions.

Temporal patterns of visitation of birds and mammals at mineral licks in the Peruvian Amazon.

Mineral licks are key ecological resources for many species of birds and mammals in Amazonia, providing essential dietary nutrients and clays, yet little is known about which species visit and their behaviors at the mineral licks. Studying visitation and behavior at mineral licks can provide insight into the lives of otherwise secretive and elusive species. We assessed which species visited mineral licks, when they visited, and whether visits and the probability of recording groups at mineral licks were seasonal or related to the lunar cycle. We camera trapped at 52 mineral licks in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon and detected 20 mammal and 13 bird species over 6,255 camera nights. Generalized linear models assessed visitation patterns and records of groups in association with seasonality and the lunar cycle. We report nocturnal curassows (Nothocrax urumutum) visiting mineral licks for the first time. We found seasonal trends in visitation for the black agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), blue-throated piping guan (Pipile cumanensis), red brocket deer (Mazama americana), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), and tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Lunar trends in visitation occurred for the paca (Cuniculus paca), Brazilian porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), and red brocket deer. The probability of recording groups (>1 individual) at mineral licks was seasonal and related to lunar brightness for tapir. Overall, our results provide important context for how elusive species of birds and mammals interact with these key ecological resources on a landscape scale. The ecological importance of mineral licks for these species can provide context to seasonal changes in species occupancy and movement.

Camera settings and biome influence the accuracy of citizen science approaches to camera trap image classification.

Scientists are increasingly using volunteer efforts of citizen scientists to classify images captured by motion-activated trail cameras. The rising popularity of citizen science reflects its potential to engage the public in conservation science and accelerate processing of the large volume of images generated by trail cameras. While image classification accuracy by citizen scientists can vary across species, the influence of other factors on accuracy is poorly understood. Inaccuracy diminishes the value of citizen science derived data and prompts the need for specific best-practice protocols to decrease error. We compare the accuracy between three programs that use crowdsourced citizen scientists to process images online: Snapshot Serengeti, Wildwatch Kenya, and AmazonCam Tambopata. We hypothesized that habitat type and camera settings would influence accuracy. To evaluate these factors, each photograph was circulated to multiple volunteers. All volunteer classifications were aggregated to a single best answer for each photograph using a plurality algorithm. Subsequently, a subset of these images underwent expert review and were compared to the citizen scientist results. Classification errors were categorized by the nature of the error (e.g., false species or false empty), and reason for the false classification (e.g., misidentification). Our results show that Snapshot Serengeti had the highest accuracy (97.9%), followed by AmazonCam Tambopata (93.5%), then Wildwatch Kenya (83.4%). Error type was influenced by habitat, with false empty images more prevalent in open-grassy habitat (27%) compared to woodlands (10%). For medium to large animal surveys across all habitat types, our results suggest that to significantly improve accuracy in crowdsourced projects, researchers should use a trail camera set up protocol with a burst of three consecutive photographs, a short field of view, and determine camera sensitivity settings based on in situ testing. Accuracy level comparisons such as this study can improve reliability of future citizen science projects, and subsequently encourage the increased use of such data.

Social behavior in fission-fusion groups of red uakari monkeys (Cacajao calvus ucayalii).

Primates living in large groups that divide to forage must have social systems compatible with this mode of living. Uakari monkeys (Cacajao spp.) live in large groups and exhibit a form of fission-fusion grouping, but their social organization is poorly understood. We present some of the first data on social behavior for this genus based on a study on Cacajao calvus ucayalii. They traveled in multimale multifemale groups of highly variable sizes, with bachelor units on the periphery. Adult males were affiliative, and adult females associated with more than one adult male. Adult females typically traveled with their dependent offspring and an older juvenile within the group. In parties of two or more males, individuals engaged in previously unreported display behaviors and acted together to aggressively chase other males. Breeding was seasonal, and mating occurred away from other group members. We speculate on the social organization of C. calvus ucayalii, in which dispersal may be bisexual and peripheral males are affiliative with one another. Affiliated males appear to cooperate in fighting and displaying to other males for access to females during the breeding season.

The ethnoprimatology of the Maijuna of the Peruvian Amazon and implications for primate conservation.

BACKGROUND: In Amazonia, primates are not only an important food source but they also hold significant cultural and symbolic value for many indigenous groups. We document the relationship between primates and community members of the Maijuna indigenous community of Sucusari in the Peruvian Amazon and describe how ethnoprimatological studies provide a better understanding of the significance of primates in people's lives. Additionally, we explore how ethnoprimatological studies can help inform and enhance primate conservation initiatives. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 50 residents of the community of Sucusari to assess the classification, cultural significance and traditional uses, beliefs, ceremonies and stories of primates within the Sucusari River basin. RESULTS: Primates play an important role in the lives of individuals in the Sucusari community. They are distinguished by their arboreal lifestyle, and among the 11 species reported in the area, seven (Lagothrix lagotricha, Alouatta seniculus, Pithecia monachus, Callicebus spp., Saimiri sciureus, Leontocebus nigricollis) are highly recognized and culturally salient. Primates are used as food, medicine, pets, domestic tools and in the production of handicrafts. They are primarily hunted for local consumption, with larger primates such as L. lagotricha being preferred. Lagothrix lagotricha was also the most commonly reported pet species and the only observed pet primate in the community during surveys. Maijuna traditional beliefs include ancestral dietary taboos for A. seniculus, which are referred to as sorcerer monkeys, but this taboo is no longer fully adhered to. Maijuna traditional stories associated with primates describe the origin of primates found in Sucusari. CONCLUSION: Primates are embedded in the intricate sociocultural system of the community of Sucusari. Better understanding the relationship between primates and people can help to focus conservation efforts on primate species of particularly high sociocultural importance as well as ecological value, such as L. lagotricha. We highly recommend the inclusion of ethnoprimatological studies into primate conservation initiatives to accomplish more effective conservation planning, ultimately integrating the goals of biodiversity conservation with the cultural and economic needs of indigenous and local communities.