Coreplication of the major genotype group members of porcine circovirus type 2 as a prerequisite to coevolution may explain the variable disease manifestations.

A member of the family Circoviridae, porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), is associated with postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), a recent emerging disease worldwide. PCV2 is also found in clinically asymptomatic animals. This paradoxical finding makes the syndrome etiology challenging. We developed new assays to study PCV2 with links to syndrome etiology. For analysis, we used PCV2-infected tissues from subclinically infected and diseased piglets. We compared antigen- and PCV2 DNA-derived signals for tissue localization and intensity. Oligonucleotides were designed to the signature motif of the PCV2 capsid open reading frame to discriminate experimentally between PCV2 genotype groups by PCR, in situ hybridization (ISH), and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Unexpectedly, all PCV2-infected animals carried both PCV2a and PCV2b genotype group members. Using confocal microscopy, genotype single-cell infections and cell superinfections were visible. Additionally, we discriminated replicative DNA from total PCV2 DNA isoforms with FISH. This aided in our inquiry into cellular genotype-specific replication. Importantly, single-genotype-group replication was not observed. In infected cells with replicating virus, both genotype groups were equally present. These findings suggest PCV2 genotype group members relaxed replication regulation requirements and may even point to PCV2 replication cooperativity in vivo. These observations explain the readily seen PCV2 DNA recombinations and the high overall PCV2 genome plasticity. Hence, we suggest a novel mechanism of syndrome etiology that consists of a continuously changing PCV2 genome pool in hosts and pig herds, posing a constant challenge to the individual maturing immune system.

Unconventional Rac-GEF activity is mediated through the Dock180-ELMO complex.

Mammalian Dock180 and ELMO proteins, and their homologues in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster, function as critical upstream regulators of Rac during development and cell migration. The mechanism by which Dock180 or ELMO mediates Rac activation is not understood. Here, we identify a domain within Dock180 (denoted Docker) that specifically recognizes nucleotide-free Rac and can mediate GTP loading of Rac in vitro. The Docker domain is conserved among known Dock180 family members in metazoans and in a yeast protein. In cells, binding of Dock180 to Rac alone is insufficient for GTP loading, and a Dock180 ELMO1 interaction is required. We can also detect a trimeric ELMO1 Dock180 Rac1 complex and ELMO augments the interaction between Dock180 and Rac. We propose that the Dock180 ELMO complex functions as an unconventional two-part exchange factor for Rac.

Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Pathogenicity Alters Host's Central Tolerance for Propagation.

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infections and resulting diseases are a worldwide threat to pig production. PCV2 bears a uniqueness that allows for us to understand more about chronic infections and the immune system in general. The virus can be phylogenetically subdivided into PCV2a to PCV2h genotypes. Although vaccination against PCV2 has been seen to prevent the manifestation of PCV disease, PCV2 still lingers as subclinical infections in all developmental stages of pigs. The "slow and low" tactic gives PCV2 a particular advantage in a host's immune surveillance. Since the inception of the PCV2 associated panzootic, research scientists have been trying to understand the pathogenicity of PCV2. Different research groups found that one genotype group member was more pathogenic than others. We found, in our weaner infection model with in vivo transfection of different recombinant PCV2 genotype group members that these viruses alter T cell maturation in the thymus, including host's central tolerance. Here, we extend these original observations by showing that PCV2 infected cells were also found in proximity within the female and male reproductive organs of stillborn pig fetuses. These PCV2 pools were sufficient in infecting three and half-day-old embryos in sows. Furthermore, the dominant PCV2 group member was more pathogenic in our weaner infection model. PCV2 pre-immunocompetence infection makes PCV2 recognized by central immune tolerance as belonging to the host. This also explains why pathogenicity is not a genetically intrinsic characteristic of PCV2; however, the dominance of any one PCV2 genotype group member leads to a more efficient deletion of the T cells against that specific genotype group member in the thymus.

PH domain of ELMO functions in trans to regulate Rac activation via Dock180.

The members of the Dock180 superfamily of proteins are novel guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEF) for Rho family GTPases and are linked to multiple biological processes from worms to mammals. ELMO is a critical regulator of Dock180, and the Dock180-ELMO complex functions as a bipartite GEF for Rac. We identified a mechanism wherein the PH domain of ELMO, by binding the Dock180-Rac complex in trans, stabilizes Rac in the nucleotide-free transition state. Mutagenesis studies reveal that this ELMO PH domain-dependent regulation is essential for the Dock180-ELMO complex to function in phagocytosis and cell migration. Genetic rescue studies in Caenorhabditis elegans using ELMO and its homolog CED-12 support the above observations in vivo. These data reveal a new mode of action of PH domains and a novel, evolutionarily conserved mechanism by which a bipartite GEF can activate Rac.

A new emerging genotype subgroup within PCV-2b dominates the PMWS epizooty in Switzerland.

Postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) is among the most important emerging pig diseases worldwide. Initially, the insidious nature of the disease made it difficult to pinpoint the pathogen. The presence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in all PMWS diseased animals led to its acceptance, possibly together with an unknown factor, as the causative agent for PMWS. Also, presence of PCV2 in healthy individuals did not facilitate the understanding of the disease. Phylogenetic classification separates PCV2 viruses into at least two major groups. With the aid of a signature motif, a short amino acid motif encoded within the capsid protein, the viruses are determined as belonging to PCV-2a or PCV-2b. Recently, this classification received more attention, as it seemed to define PCV-2b to be more virulent. This simplification, however, could not be confirmed experimentally. Hence, we investigated whether virus genetic shift was an initiator for the PMWS epizooty in Switzerland. Piglet lymphoid tissues from 1973 to 2005 were investigated by histology, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and PCR. For genotype classification, a sequence amplificate of 137bp was used encompassing the signature motif. The onset of Swiss PMWS epizooty exhibited a marked shift in PMWS diseased and subclinically infected piglets to PCV-2b and specifically to one genotype subgroup. Complementary to these observations, healthy piglets also defined by IHC as negative are positive in the PCR reaction and are void of any PCV-2b virus during epizooty. Consequently, our data support PCV2 genome plasticity as a major contributing factor for PMWS disease manifestation.

Latent porcine circovirus type 2-infected domestic pigs: A potential infection model for the effective development of vaccines against latent or chronic virus induced diseases.

Until recently, knowledge of the pathogenicity of Circoviridae and Anelloviridae family members was limited. Our previous discoveries provided clues toward resolving this issue based on studies of the latent nature of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) genotype group members. We developed a conventional pig infection model that indicated that weaners already harbored latent PCV2 infection in the thymus, which enabled the viruses to specifically modulate the maturation of T-helper cells. This finding raised the possibility that the thymi of normal fetuses were already infected with PCV2. The present findings further substantiate our hypothesis that PCV2 masquerades as the host by infecting fetuses before they acquire immune-competence. We provide the first demonstration that all domestic pig fetuses preferentially harbor latent PCV2-infected cells in their thymi. These PCV2-infected cells are different from thymocytes and are located in the medulla of the fetal thymus. These latent PCV2-infected cells in fetuses are found at the same location and share characteristics with the infected cells observed in adolescent pigs. Moreover, fetuses also harbor these infected cells in other lymph system organs. We provide the first demonstration that the fetal thymus virus pools are minimally affected by sow vaccination, highlighting the immune-privileged character of this organ. Furthermore, we found a striking reduction in virus-infected cells in the fetal spleen and an increase in PCV2-infected cells in the fetal intestine of anti-PCV2-vaccinated mothers. These data indicate that specific immune response interactions occur between mothers and their progeny that are not dependent on the humoral immunity of the mother and cannot be attributed to the rudimentary humoral responses of the fetuses because these pig fetuses do not have any PCV2-specific antibodies. These shifts in our understanding of the PCV2-infected cell pool will lead to different avenues in the search for effective vaccination strategies against latent and chronic pathogens.

T-cell reprogramming through targeted CD4-coreceptor and T-cell receptor expression on maturing thymocytes by latent Circoviridae family member porcine circovirus type 2 cell infections in the thymus.

Although porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2)-associated diseases have been evaluated for known immune evasion strategies, the pathogenicity of these viruses remained concealed for decades. Surprisingly, the same viruses that cause panzootics in livestock are widespread in young, unaffected animals. Recently, evidence has emerged that circovirus-like viruses are also linked to complex diseases in humans, including children. We detected PCV2 genome-carrying cells in fetal pig thymi. To elucidate virus pathogenicity, we developed a new pig infection model by in vivo transfection of recombinant PCV2 and the immunosuppressant cofactor cyclosporine A. Using flow cytometry, immunofluorescence and fluorescence in situ hybridization, we found evidence that PCV2 dictates positive and negative selection of maturing T cells in the thymus. We show for the first time that PCV2-infected cells reside at the corticomedullary junction of the thymus. In diseased animals, we found polyclonal deletion of single positive cells (SPs) that may result from a loss of major histocompatibility complex class-II expression at the corticomedullary junction. The percentage of PCV2 antigen-presenting cells correlated with the degree of viremia and, in turn, the severity of the defect in thymocyte maturation. Moreover, the reversed T-cell receptor/CD4-coreceptor expression dichotomy on thymocytes at the CD4(+)CD8(interm) and CD4SP cell stage is viremia-dependent, resulting in a specific hypo-responsiveness of T-helper cells. We compare our results with the only other better-studied member of Circoviridae, chicken anemia virus. Our data show that PCV2 infection leads to thymocyte selection dysregulation, adding a valuable dimension to our understanding of virus pathogenicity.

The lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP) adapter protein GULP mediates trafficking of the LRP ligand prosaposin, leading to sphingolipid and free cholesterol accumulation in late endosomes and impaired efflux.

One of the conserved functional pathways linked to engulfment of apoptotic corpses involves two membrane proteins low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP) and ABCA1 and the LRP adapter protein GULP. Because LRP and ABCA1 play roles in cellular lipid trafficking and efflux, here we addressed whether the third member, the LRP adapter protein GULP, also affects cellular lipid transport. Several lines of evidence show that overexpression of GULP causes glycosphingolipid and free cholesterol accumulation in the late endosome/lysosome compartment that is accompanied by down-regulation of ABCA1 and decreased efflux. Conversely, knockdown of endogenous GULP expression promoted cholesterol flux through the late endosomes and up-regulation of ABCA1, even in the context of a disease state such as Niemann-Pick Type C disease. Mechanistically, we were able to show that trafficking of the LRP ligands alpha2-macroglobulin and prosaposin, a protein cofactor necessary for glycosphingolipid degradation, are impaired in cells expressing full-length GULP protein, resulting in glycosphingolipid and free cholesterol accumulation in the late endosome/lysosome compartment. On the other hand, knockdown of endogenous GULP results in enhanced targeting of prosaposin and enhanced clearance of glycosphingolipids and cholesterol from the late endosomes. Taken together, these data reveal that GULP/LRP/ABCA1 represents a triad of molecules involved in engulfment and cellular lipid homeostasis.

Dock180 and ELMO1 proteins cooperate to promote evolutionarily conserved Rac-dependent cell migration.

Cell migration is essential throughout embryonic and adult life. In numerous cell systems, the small GTPase Rac is required for lamellipodia formation at the leading edge and movement ability. However, the molecular mechanisms leading to Rac activation during migration are still unclear. Recently, a mammalian superfamily of proteins related to the prototype member Dock180 has been identified with homologues in Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, we addressed the role of Dock180 and ELMO1 proteins, which function as a complex to mediate Rac activation, in mammalian cell migration. Using mutants of Dock180 and ELMO1 in a Transwell assay as well as transgenic rescue of a C. elegans mutant lacking CED-5 (Dock180 homologue), we identified specific regions of Dock180 and ELMO1 required for migration in vitro and in a whole animal model. In both systems, the Dock180.ELMO1 complex formation and the ability to activate Rac were required. We also found that ELMO1 regulated multiple Dock180 superfamily members to promote migration. Interestingly, deletion mutants of ELMO1 missing their first 531 or first 330 amino acids that can still bind and cooperate with Dock180 in Rac activation failed to promote migration, which correlated with the inability to localize to lamellipodia. This finding suggests that Rac activation by the ELMO.Dock180 complex at discrete intracellular locations mediated by the N-terminal 330 amino acids of ELMO1 rather than generalized Rac activation plays a role in cell migration.