Correlation between olfactory function, age, sex, and cognitive reserve index in the Italian population.

PURPOSE: Loss of smell decreases the quality of life and contributes to the failure in recognizing hazardous substances. Given the relevance of olfaction in daily life, it is important to recognize an undiagnosed olfactory dysfunction to prevent these possible complications. Up to now, the prevalence of smell disorders in Italy is unknown due to a lack of epidemiological studies. Hence, the primary aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of olfactory dysfunction in a sample of Italian adults. METHODS: Six hundred and thirty-three participants (347 woman and 286 men; mean age 44.9 years, SD 17.3, age range 18-86) were recruited from 10 distinct Italian regions. Participants were recruited using a convenience sapling and were divided into six different age groups: 18-29 years (N = 157), 30-39 years (N = 129), 40-49 years (N = 99), 50-59 years (N = 106), > 60 years (N = 142). Olfactory function, cognitive abilities, cognitive reserve, and depression were assessed, respectively, with: Sniffin' Sticks 16-item Odor Identification Test, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, Cognitive Reserve Index, and the Beck Depression Inventory. Additionally, socio-demographic data, medical history, and health-related lifestyle information were collected. RESULTS: About 27% of participants showed an odor identification score < 12 indicating hyposmia. Multiple regression analysis revealed that OI was significantly correlated with age, sex, and cognitive reserve index, and young women with high cognitive reserve index showing the highest olfactory scores. CONCLUSION: This study provides data on the prevalence of olfactory dysfunction in different Italian regions.

Effects of different woods in barbecuing: Consumers' sensory perception and liking of grilled chicken meat.

The sensory effects of grilling wood on consumers' response are poorly understood, despite their potentiality in diversifying dishes. This study investigated both the effects of six materials (beech tree wood, Turkey oak wood, Sangiovese grapevine wood, olive wood, strawberry tree wood, charcoal briquettes) used to grill chicken breast meat on liking and sensory perception and consumers' interest in using wood for grilling. A consumer test was conducted (n = 99 subjects, 45% males, aged from 18 to 65 years), applying a Rate-All-That-Apply test, a liking test, and a questionnaire exploring the interest, the perceived value and the sustainability of wood as part of the food processing. The type of wood clearly affected the consumers' sensory perception and acceptability of meat. Strawberry tree wood was the most connoted and divisive sample. Turkey oak, olive tree and Sangiovese grapevine woods were associated to milder sensory profile. Two clusters were found (respectively with 54% participants in Cl1 and 46% in Cl2), with opposite preferences: while Cl2 preferred meat grilled with the most connotating wood (Strawberry tree wood) characterized by bitterness while Cl1 on the opposite preferred meat grilled with the milder woods. Consumers showed a high interest for grilling material, wood origin and wood botanical species, independently from the cluster. Strawberry tree wood was the material that most strongly connotated grilled meat and thus the most divisive one in terms of liking. Different varieties of wood and certified sustainable wood can valorize the grilling process in food services.

Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) Test to Investigate the Consumers' Perception of Olive Oil Sensory Properties: Effect of Storage Time and Packaging Material.

Sensory changes during shelf-life of oils have been mostly studied by descriptive methods, while consumer-based approaches have been poorly explored. This study assessed the variations in consumers' liking and sensory perception of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and olive oil (OO) packaged in glass, polyethylene terephthalate and tinplate. After 2, 10 and 19 months of storage, oil perception was investigated with consumers (n = 50) performing both a liking test and a check-all-that-apply (CATA) test. No significant effect of the packaging material on consumers' response was found, whereas storage time negatively affected the sensory properties of and acceptability of OOs and EVOOs from the 10th month of storage. The CATA test results revealed the sensory changes in oils over 19 months, mainly described as a decrease in pungency for EVOO and a decrease in herbaceous and ripe fruitiness in OO. The CATA technique combined with the liking test allowed the drivers of liking ("olive" for OO and "green fruitiness" for EVOO) and disliking ("bitter" and "pungent" for EVOO) to be identified. In conclusion, the sensory approach based both on CATA technique and liking test seems promising as a rapid tool to evaluate the changes in sensory properties perceivable during the shelf-life of oils.

Relationship between Sensory Attributes, (Dis) Liking and Volatile Organic Composition of Gorgonzola PDO Cheese.

Blue-veined cheese tends to polarize the consumers' affective responses due to its strong flavor. This study aims to: (i) explore the consumers' sensory perceptions and liking of Gorgonzola PDO cheese; (ii) identify the sensory drivers of acceptance for Gorgonzola in the function of the cheese style; (iii) characterize them by the volatile organic compounds (VOCs); and (iv) explore the relationships of the VOCs with sensory perception and liking. Six samples of Gorgonzola cheese differing in style (sweet vs. piquant), aging time (70-95 days), and production process (artisanal vs. industrial) were evaluated by 358 subjects (46% males, 18-77 years) using liking and Rate-All-That-Apply (RATA) tests. The cheese VOCs were measured by SPME/GC-MS. Liking was significantly higher for the sweet cheese than for the piquant cheese and for the artisanal cheese than for the industrial samples. Penalty Analysis showed that 'creamy', 'sweet', 'nutty', and 'salty' were significant drivers of liking while the 'soapy' and 'ammonia' flavors turned out to be drivers of disliking. Fifty-three VOCs were identified. Regression models revealed the significant highest associations between the VOCs and 'ammonia', 'pungent', 'soapy', and 'moldy' flavors. A good association was also found with the consumers' liking. The identification of the sensory drivers of (dis) liking and their relationship with the VOCs of Gorgonzola opens up a new understanding of the consumers' blue-veined cheese preferences.

Linking producers' and consumers' perceptions in the valorisation of non-timber forest products: An analysis of Ogiek forest honey.

This work aims to present a multidisciplinary approach that combines methodologies from economic anthropology and sensory science to valorise non-timber forest products; this is performed by using Kenyan forest honey as a case study to foster a positive alignment between producers and consumers living in the target market. Firstly, ethnographic research was carried out in Kenya to analyse the core competences of the forest honey producers (n = 20) and to select honey samples for the sensory evaluation. Secondly, a consumer test was performed in Italy to investigate the perception of the sensory properties by using a rate-all-that-apply test and its hedonic responses for six forest honeys by subjects living in Italy (n = 50). Based on the producers' perceptions of the definition of the harvesting area and the floral origin of the honeys, an indigenous classification was outlined. The key core competences of the producers centred around the traditional method of production. The harvesting area was determinant in the preference of the interviewees, being forest honeys produced from the nectar of indigenous melliferous species, from which originate the most appreciated products. Similarly, results from the consumer test showed that harvesting area and the floral origin influenced the hedonic response. Moreover, the drivers of liking (e.g. intense colour, clear appearance, smoked flavour) and disliking (e.g., granularity, opaque appearance) were identified. The paper suggests a development trajectory that promotes the commercial potential of local production but preserves the heritage thereof. The approach is potentially applicable to all marginalised food products and facilitates a promising prospective for sustainable development.

Nutritional, antioxidant and sensory properties of functional beef burgers formulated with chia seeds and goji puree, before and after in vitro digestion.

The addition of chia seeds and goji puree (2.5 and/or 5%) was evaluated in terms of their effects on the fatty acid profile, lipid peroxidation, total phenols and antioxidant capacity of cooked beef burgers. In comparison to control burgers, polyunsaturated fatty acids doubled or tripled in samples containing chia seeds; polyphenols and antioxidant capacities (ORAC, ABTS, DPPH) increased up to 70% and malondialdehyde values were reduced up to 50% in burgers formulated with both ingredients. Polyphenols, antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation were also assessed after in vitro digestion. A marked increase of polyphenol bioaccessibility and antioxidant capacity was observed for all samples, but also malondialdehyde values were increased after digestion, especially in samples containing 5% chia seeds. Finally, hedonistic tests were conducted on young (18-30 years), adult (31-60 years) and elderly (>60 years) subjects and the burgers resulted acceptable by all groups, appointing to their potential application as functional burgers.