Alcohol and cannabis use and co-use among Whites and Hispanics on and off the U.S./Mexico border in California.

This paper examines self-reported rates of drinking and cannabis use and co-use among White and Hispanic adults randomly selected in four counties in California: Imperial on the border; and Kern, Tulare, and Madera in California's Central Valley. Co-use was significantly higher among the U.S. born than among those born abroad, and in the Central Valley than on the border. Co-users were heavier drinkers, had higher rates of alcohol use disorder, other alcohol problems, and a positive history of illicit drug use than drinkers only.

Drinking in Mexico by Whites and Hispanics on and off the US/Mexico border in California.

This paper compares drinking patterns of Whites and Hispanics who after crossing the U.S./Mexico border drink and do not drink in Mexico. Data came from a household survey of 1,209 adults 18 to 39 years of age in California. Residence near the US/Mexico border increases the likelihood of drinking in Mexico (AOR = 4.57; 95%CI = 2.45-8.52; p < .001). Hispanics (AOR = 1.91; 95%CI = 1.26-2.90; p < .01), those who drink more frequently (AOR = 1.05; 95%CI = 1.02-1.09; p < .01) and those who drink six or more drinks in day (AOR = 1.91; 95%CI = 1.26-2.29; p < .01) are more likely than Whites and lighter drinkers to report this behavior. Crossing the U.S./Mexico border to drink is influenced by living close to the border, Hispanic ethnicity, and drinking many drinks in a day.

Recreational marijuana legalization and marijuana and alcohol co-use among adolescents: Differential associations among racial and ethnic groups.

We examined associations of the 2016 legalization of recreational marijuana (RML) in California with marijuana and alcohol co-use among race/ethnic groups using successive cross-sections from 7th, 9th, and 11th graders (N = 3,319,329) in the 2010-11 to 2018-19 California Healthy Kids Surveys. Multilevel logistic regressions indicated a stronger positive association between RML and co-use among non-Hispanic/Latine White youth (OR = 1.21) relative to Hispanic/Latine (OR = 1.02) or Black youth (OR = 0.85). Among drinkers who had not consumed five or more drinks on any occasion in the past 30-days (non-heavy drinkers), the positive association between RML and co-use was stronger among American Indian/Alaska Native youth (OR = 2.19) compared to non-Hispanic/Latine Whites (OR = 1.56). For heavier drinkers it was stronger for Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders (OR = 1.47). Among marijuana users, there was a stronger inverse association between RML and co-use among Black youth (OR = 0.72) compared to non-Hispanic/Latine White youth (OR = 0.84). RML may increase the risk of co-use to a greater extent among non-Hispanic/Latine White youth than other race/ethnic groups in California, but broadly increases the risk among youth who engage in alcohol use or heavy drinking.

Trends and correlates of spatially aggregated alcohol-involved crashes among Whites and Hispanics in California.

AIMS: This paper examines trends and correlates of alcohol-involved motor vehicle crashes (AMVCs) in California between 2005 and 2016 among Hispanic and non-Hispanic Whites (Whites hereafter). Together these two groups comprise 76% of the state population. The paper also examines whether alcohol outlet density, percentage of Hispanics in census tract populations, and distance to the U.S./Mexico border are related to greater risks for AMVCs. The border is of interest given the greater availability of alcohol in the area. METHODS: Crash data come from Statewide Integrated Traffic Records System maintained by the California Highway Patrol. Sociodemographic and community characteristics data from the U.S. Census and alcohol outlet density were aggregated to census tracts. Total motor vehicle crashes and AMVCs were related to these characteristics using hierarchical Bayesian Poisson space-time models. RESULTS: There were over two million injury and fatality crashes during the period of analysis, of which 11% were AMVCs. About 1.7% of these crashes had fatalities. The rate of AMVCs increased among both Whites and Hispanics until 2008. After 2008, the rate among Whites declined through 2016 while the rate among Hispanics declined for 2 years (2009 and 2010) and increased thereafter. Crash distance from the border (RR = 1.016, 95% CI = 1.010 to 1.022) and percent Hispanic population (RR = 1.006; 95% CI = 1.003 to 1.009) were well-supported results with 95% credible intervals that did not include 1. The percentages of the following: bars/pubs, males, individuals aged 18 to 29 and 40 to 49 years, U.S. born population, individuals below the 150% poverty level, unemployed, housing vacant, and housing owner-occupied were all positively associated with AMVCs and well supported. CONCLUSIONS: Between 2005 and 2016 the rate of AMVCs in California declined among Whites but not among Hispanics. Population-level indicators of percent Hispanic population, distance to the U.S. Mexico border, gender, age distribution, and socioeconomic stability were positively associated with crash rates, indicating that important contextual characteristics help determine the level of AMVC rates in communities.

Association of Cannabis Use and At-Risk Alcohol Use With Intimate Partner Violence in an Urban ED Sample.

INTRODUCTION: Urban ED patients have elevated rates of substance use and intimate partner violence. The purpose of this study is to describe the risk profiles for intimate partner violence among urban ED patients who report at-risk alcohol use only, cannabis use only, or both types of substance use. METHODS: Cross-sectional survey data were collected from study participants (N = 1037; 53% female; ages 18-50) following informed consent. We measured participants' past-year at-risk drinking (women/men who had 4+/5+ drinks in a day), cannabis use, psychosocial and demographic characteristics, and past-year physical intimate partner violence (assessed with the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale). We used bivariate analysis to assess whether rates of intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization differed by type of substance use behavior. Multivariate logistic regression models were estimated for each intimate partner violence outcome. All analyses were stratified by gender. RESULTS: Rates of intimate partner violence differed significantly by type of substance use behavior and were highest among those who reported both at-risk drinking and cannabis use. Multivariate analysis showed that women who reported at-risk drinking only, cannabis use only, or both types of substance use had increased odds for intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization compared with women who reported neither type of substance use. Men's at-risk drinking and cannabis use were not associated with elevated odds of intimate partner violence perpetration or victimization. DISCUSSION: Brief screening of patients' at-risk drinking and cannabis use behaviors may help identify those at greater risk for intimate partner violence and those in need of referral to treatment.

Alcohol use disorder among Whites and Hispanics on and off the U.S./Mexico border in California.

This paper examines whether U.S./Mexico border residence in California is related to the prevalence of DSM-5 alcohol use disorder (AUD) among Whites and Hispanics. Household survey data were obtained from 1,209 adults (59.7% female) 18 to 39 years of age resident in four counties in California: Imperial on the U.S./Mexico border; and Kern, Tulare, and Madera in California's Central Valley. Households were selected using a list assisted sample, with data collected on the phone or online. Results show that AUD rates were not different between border and non-border location and between Whites and Hispanics. AUD was negatively associated with higher income ($20,000 to $60,000: AOR=.38; 95%CI=.17-.86; p<.01-more than $60,000: AOR=.27; 95%CI: .09-.81; p<.01) and poor risk perception (AOR=.86; 95%CI=.78-.94; p<.01). AUD was positively associated with continued volume of drinking (AOR = 1.05; 95%CI = 1.01-1.09; p<.01), drinking in Mexico (AOR = 4.28; 95%CI = 1.61-11.36; p<.01), marijuana use (AOR = 4.11; 95%CI = 1.73-9.77; p<.01), and impulsivity (AOR = 1.55; 95%CI = 1.23-1.94). Efforts to prevent AUD in the population in California, and especially among those who live close to the border with Mexico, should take into consideration factors such as impulsivity, marijuana use, border crossing to drink in Mexico, all of which increased risk of AUD.

Suicide, Alcohol Intoxication, and Age Among Whites and American Indians/Alaskan Natives.

BACKGROUND: Among American Indians/Alaskan Natives (AI/ANs), suicides are disproportionately high among those younger than 40 years of age. This paper examines suicide and alcohol intoxication (postmortem BAC ≥ 0.08 g/dl) by age among Whites and AI/ANs to better understand the reasons for the high rate of suicide among AI/ANs for those younger than 40. METHODS: Data come from the restricted 2003 to 2016 National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS), with postmortem information on 79,150 White and AI/AN suicide decedents of both genders who had a BAC test in 32 states of the United States. RESULTS: Among Whites, 39.3% of decedents legally intoxicated are younger than 40 years of age, while among AI/ANs the proportion is 72.9% (p < 0.001). Multivariable logistic regression with data divided by age shows that in the 18 to 39 age group, AI/ANs are about 2 times more likely than Whites to have a postmortem BAC ≥ 0.08. Veteran status compared to nonveteran, and history of alcohol problems prior to suicide were also associated with BAC ≥ 0.08. Suicide methods other than by firearm and a report of the presence of 2 or more suicide precipitating circumstances were protective against BAC ≥ 0.08. Results for the age group 40 years of age and older mirror those for the younger group with 1 exception: Race/ethnicity was not associated with BAC level. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of suicide decedents with a BAC ≥ 0.08 is higher among AI/ANs than Whites, especially among those 18 to 39 years of age. However, acute alcohol intoxication does not fully explain differences in suicide age structure between AI/ANs and Whites.

Proximity to the Southern Border and Sociodemographic Correlates of Drinking and Driving Arrests in California.

BACKGROUND: About 30% of all motor vehicle fatalities in the United States are associated with alcohol-impaired motor vehicle crashes. Arrests for drinking and driving (Driving under the influence [DUI]) are 1 of the most important deterrence actions to minimize DUI. This paper examines trends and population-level correlates of drinking driving arrests (DUI) from 2005 to 2017 in California. METHODS: Arrest data come from the Monthly Arrest and Citation Register compiled by the California Department of Justice. Sociodemographic and community characteristic data from the U.S. Census, alcohol outlet density, and distance to the U.S.-Mexico border from Law Enforcement Reporting Areas (LERA) centroids were aggregated at the level of 499 LERA contributing to the report. Reported arrest rates were related to area sociodemographic characteristics using hierarchical Bayesian Poisson space-time models. RESULTS: Both among men and women rates showed an upward trend until 2008, decreasing after that year. DUI arrest rates were greater among Hispanics than Whites for the 2 younger age groups, 18 to 29 (p < 0.001) and 30 to 39 years (p < 0.001). DUI arrest rates in LERA areas are positively related to proximity to the California/Mexico border; a higher percent of bar/pub outlets; a higher percent of Hispanic population; a higher percent of population 18 to 29, 30 to 39, and 40 to 49 years of age; a higher percent of US-born population; a higher percent of population with annual income of $100,000 or more; a higher percent of population 150% below the federal poverty line; and a higher level of law-enforcement activities. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this analysis of spatial correlates of DUI arrests overlap well with the literature on individual-level data and arrest rates. The decrease in arrest rates as distance to the California/Mexico border increases is potentially associated with the greater availability of alcohol in the border area.

Adverse childhood experiences are associated with at-risk drinking, cannabis and illicit drug use in females but not males: an Emergency Department study.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with adult substance use in the general population. Given pervasive health disparities among underserved populations, understanding how ACEs are associated with substance use among urban Emergency Department (ED) patients could help inform design of effective screening, brief interventions, and referral to treatment. OBJECTIVES: To estimate gender differences in prevalence of separate and cumulative ACEs among a sample of urban ED patients, and assess its association with at-risk drinking (4+/5+ drinks for females/males), cannabis, and illicit drug use. We hypothesized that the association between ACEs and each outcome would be stronger among females than males. METHODS: Cross-sectional survey data were obtained from 1,037 married/partnered ED patients (53% female) at a public safety-net hospital. Gender-stratified logistic regression models were estimated for each substance use outcome. RESULTS: One+ ACEs were reported by 53% of males and 60% of females. Females whose mother was a victim of domestic violence had greater odds of at-risk drinking compared to females who did not report this ACE (AOR = 1.72; 95% CI 1.03, 2.88). Females' cumulative ACEs were associated with cannabis use (OR = 2.26, 95% CI 1.06, 4.83) and illicit drug use (OR = 3.35; 95% CI 1.21, 9.30). Males' separate and cumulative ACEs were not associated with increased likelihood for any of the outcomes. CONCLUSION: ACEs are associated with greater odds of substance use among female than male ED patients. The prevalence of ACE exposure in this urban ED sample underscores the importance of ED staff providing trauma-informed care.

Gender Differences in Gambling Exposure and At-risk Gambling Behavior.

This study aimed to evaluate the differences in gambling exposure and onset of gambling problems among male and female gamblers by comparing their demographic and behavioral profiles. This study utilized data from the gambling section of the First Brazilian National Alcohol Survey and Related Behaviors. Interviews were conducted with 3007 participants who were recruited after screening for at-risk gambling behaviors. Individuals who tested positive for at-risk gambling behaviors completed the Gambling Progression Questionnaire comprising items on games of chance, and were evaluated using the DSM-IV pathological gambling criteria. The participants' "lifetime gambling exposure" was 12.5%, with 4% having experienced gambling problems during their lifetime. Majority of the male at-risk gamblers (78%) reported that they began gambling in their 20 s and took approximately 3 years to start experiencing gambling-related problems. Contrastingly, female at-risk gamblers started gambling in their 30 s and they took about 12 years to start experiencing gambling-related problems. The present results show that men were 2.3 times more at risk of gambling exposure and 3.6 times more likely to experience gambling-related problems. Male at-risk male gamblers seemed to be lonelier and to have a low socioeconomic status, while women seemed to have lower income and social insertion. Considering these significant differences, more studies evaluating gender differences in gambling behavior are necessary.

Violence and substance use in sexual minorities: Data from the Second Brazilian National Alcohol and Drugs Survey (II BNADS).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of substance use and the associations between adverse early life experiences, sexual behaviour and violence in sexual minority (SM) individuals. METHODS: The Brazilian National Alcohol and Drugs Survey is a probabilistic household survey performed in 2012, collecting data from 4067 Brazilians aged 14 years and older. RESULTS: 3.4% of the sample declared themselves as sexual minorities, 53.8% female, 66.5% single, mean age of 29.5 years (standard deviation 16.0 years). A high prevalence of alcohol dependence (15.2%) and binge drinking (22.2%) was identified in the SM group. Respondents were more likely to use crack cocaine and hallucinogens, to have been involved in child prostitution, child sexual abuse and to report suicidal ideation in the previous year. Respondents were also more likely to engage in unprotected sex compared to non-sexual minorities. Nearly one-third referred to having suffered homophobic discrimination in their lives. Respondents also reported higher rates of domestic violence (18.9%) and urban violence (18%) among the SM. CONCLUSION: The findings reinforce that violence directed at individuals in the Brazilian SM community begins early in life and persists into adulthood when compared to non-sexual minorities. This population is also more exposed to substance use disorders.

Correlates of Alcohol-Related Treatment Among American Indians and Alaska Natives with Lifetime Alcohol Use Disorder.

BACKGROUND: To describe sociodemographic and selected psychiatric disorder patterns and estimate correlates of seeking alcohol treatment among American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIAN) and non-Hispanic Whites (NHW) with lifetime alcohol use disorder (AUD). METHODS: Data come from the 2012 to 2013 U.S. National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. We retrospectively identified participants who completed information on lifetime AUD, race/ethnicity, and seeking alcohol treatment or help for AUD. We used a generalized linear model with a log link and Poisson distribution to estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) among adults with DSM-5 lifetime AUD. We included the following correlates: race/ethnicity, sex, age, personal annual income, marital status, education, urban/rural status, U.S. region, any illegal drug use disorder, nicotine use disorder, and select mood-, anxiety-, personality-, and trauma-related disorders. RESULTS: Among AIAN, the prevalence of lifetime AUD was 46.6%. Among AIAN with lifetime AUD, 33.8% sought alcohol-related treatment. Among individuals with lifetime AUD, AIAN were associated with greater alcohol-related treatment-seeking compared to NHW (adjusted PR = 1.41 [95% CI 1.26 to 1.58]). Among AIAN with AUD, being male and age 35 to 64 were statistically significant correlates of seeking treatment or help for AUD. CONCLUSIONS: A relatively higher proportion of AIAN than NHW with AUDs sought alcohol treatment. Among individuals with lifetime AUD, significant demographic and psychiatric disorder correlates of treatment are present, showing that certain groups are less likely to seek treatment or help for alcohol-related issues. Among AIAN with AUD, these correlates may reflect distinct patterns of seeking alcohol-related treatment, which can inform more effective treatment promotion efforts with this population.

Children exposed to alcohol-related problems and DSM-5 alcohol use disorder in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

This article estimates the proportion of children (17 and younger) exposed to an adult with an alcohol problem or alcohol use disorder (AUD) in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Data are from a household random sample of 1,510 individuals 18-64 years of age. A total of 20.9% of children in sample households were exposed to an adult with an alcohol problem, and 5.7% were exposed to an adult with DSM-5 AUD. These considerable proportions suggest that alcohol treatment and family support programs should include help for adults in the family, and special support for exposed children in the household.

DSM-5 Alcohol Use Disorder Severity in Puerto Rico: Prevalence, Criteria Profile, and Correlates.

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to examine lifetime criteria profiles and correlates of severity (mild, moderate, severe) of DSM-5 alcohol use disorders (AUD) in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Data are from a household random sample of individuals 18 to 64 years of age in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The survey response rate was 83%. DSM-5 AUD was identified with the Spanish version of the World Health Organization's Composite International Diagnostic Interview. The analyses also identify correlates of each severity level using an ordered logistic regression model. RESULTS: The prevalence of lifetime DSM-5 AUD among men and women was 38 and 16%, respectively. Mild lifetime DSM-5 AUD was the most prevalent severity level among both men (18%) and women (9%). The most common criteria, independent of gender and severity level, were drinking larger quantities and for longer than planned (men range: 80 to 97%; women range: 78 to 91%) and hazardous use (men range: 56 to 91%; women range: 42 to 74%). Results from ordered logistic regression showed that the adjusted odds ratio for weekly drinking frequency, greater volume of alcohol consumed per drinking occasion, positive attitudes about drinking, drinking norms, and male gender invariantly increased risks across all DSM-5 AUD severity levels (mild, moderate, severe). Greater negative attitudes about drinking, low family cohesion, and Protestant religion were related to greater risks at higher AUD severity levels. CONCLUSIONS: AUD prevalence is high in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Prevalence rates for some criteria are equally high across severity levels and poorly differentiate between mild, moderate, or severe DSM-5 AUD. The sociodemographic and alcohol-related risks vary across DSM-5 severity levels.

Drinking and Driving in Puerto Rico.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological information is lacking for driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) in Puerto Rico. OBJECTIVES: To examine the prevalence and correlates of DUI in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Data are from a household sample of 1510 individuals, aged 18-64 years in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The response rate was 83%. RESULTS: The rate of 12 month self-reported DUI was 20% among men and 8% among women (p < 0.001). Twelve month DUI arrests were reported by 0.1% of men and 0.2% of women (p: ns) while lifetime arrests were reported by 6% of men and 0.7% of women (p < 0.001). Adjusted analyses showed that the number of hours of daily driving (OR = 1.08, 95% CI = 1.01-1.17; p < 0.05), male gender (OR = 1.66, 95% CI = 1.07-2.58; p < 0.01), having more liberal drinking norms (OR = 4.81; 95% CI = 2.61-8.84; p < 0.01) and more positive attitudes towards drinking (OR = 4.58; 95% CI = 1.28-16.31; p < 0.01), consuming a higher number of weekly drinks (OR = 1.05; 95% CI: 1.03-1.07; p < 0.001), and binge drinking (OR = 2.60; 95% CI = 1.62-4.16; p < 0.001) were factors of risk for self-reporting DUI. A lifetime arrest was associated with being separated or divorced (OR = 2.7; 95% CI = 1.04-7.36; p < 0.05), male gender (OR = 5.25; 95% CI = 1.93-14.26; p < 0.001), more liberal drinking norms (OR = 6.97; 95% CI = 2.37-20.48; p < 0.001), and illicit drug use (OR = 2.82; 95% CI = 1.25-6.35; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of self-reported DUI in San Juan, Puerto Rico was high, but the proportion of people arrested for DUI in a span of 12 months or during their lifetime was low. Stricter enforcement of DUI laws may be necessary to minimize DUI in urban Puerto Rico.

Drinking, Alcohol Use Disorder, and Treatment Access and Utilization Among U.S. Racial/Ethnic Groups.

Data from approximately 140 articles and reports published since 2000 on drinking, alcohol use disorder (AUD), correlates of drinking and AUD, and treatment needs, access, and utilization were critically examined and summarized. Epidemiological evidence demonstrates alcohol-related disparities across U.S. racial/ethnic groups. American Indians/Alaska Natives generally drink more and are disproportionately affected by alcohol problems, having some of the highest rates for AUD. In contrast, Asian Americans are less affected. Differences across Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics are more nuanced. The diversity in drinking and problem rates that is observed across groups also exists within groups, particularly among Hispanics, Asian Americans, and American Indians/Alaska Natives. Research findings also suggest that acculturation to the United States and nativity affect drinking. Recent studies on ethnic drinking cultures uncover the possible influence that native countries' cultural norms around consumption still have on immigrants' alcohol use. The reasons for racial/ethnic disparities in drinking and AUD are complex and are associated with historically rooted patterns of racial discrimination and persistent socioeconomic disadvantage. This disadvantage is present at both individual and environmental levels. Finally, these data indicate that admission to alcohol treatment is also complex and is dependent on the presence and severity of alcohol problems but also on a variety of other factors. These include individuals' sociodemographic characteristics, the availability of appropriate services, factors that may trigger coercion into treatment by family, friends, employers, and the legal system, and the overall organization of the treatment system. More research is needed to understand facilitators and barriers to treatment to improve access to services and support. Additional directions for future research are discussed.

Association Between Lifetime Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Past Year Alcohol Use Disorder Among American Indians/Alaska Natives and Non-Hispanic Whites.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder disproportionately impact certain populations including American Indians/Alaska Natives (AIAN). While PTSD and alcohol use disorder have been studied both separately and in tandem, less is known about the association in AIAN. The objective was to examine the association between lifetime PTSD and past year alcohol use disorder among AIAN and non-Hispanic Whites (NHW). METHODS: Data come from the 2012 to 2013 U.S. National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. We used logistic regression to estimate odds of AUD among adults with and without PTSD by race. RESULTS: A total of 19,705 participants, of whom 511 were AIAN and 19,194 were NHW, were included in this study. The percentage of PTSD among AIAN was 22.9% (n = 117) compared to 11.7% (n = 2,251) in NHW (p-value <0.0001). The percentage of past year alcohol use disorder among AIAN was 20.2% (n = 103) compared to 14.2% (n = 2,725) in NHW (p-value <0.0001). The percentage of comorbid past year alcohol use disorder with lifetime PTSD among AIAN was 6.5% (n = 33) compared to 2.4% (n = 457) in NHW (p-value <0.0001). Regarding the joint distribution of PTSD and AUD, AIAN men have greater than 3 times the percentage compared to NHW men (9.5% vs. 3.1%). When stratifying by race (after adjusting for age, sex, depression, and education), among AIAN, the odds of past year alcohol use disorder with (vs. without) lifetime PTSD were 1.76 (95% CI 1.07, 2.90) and among NHW, the odds were 1.59 (95% CI 1.41, 1.80). CONCLUSIONS: PTSD is significantly associated with alcohol use disorder in the study populations. Despite a lack of pre-PTSD measures of alcohol use disorder, these findings show a trend indicating that AIAN exposed to PTSD are more burdened with alcohol use disorder compared to NHW in the general U.S.

Presence of Alcohol, Cocaine, and Other Drugs in Suicide and Motor Vehicle Crash Decedents Ages 18 to 54.

BACKGROUND: Use of alcohol and select other drugs confer risk for injury deaths, yet how such use compares in different types of injury deaths including suicide and fatal motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) is unclear. METHODS: Individuals in New Mexico ages 18 to 54 that died in 2012 by suicide or MVC were analyzed. Toxicology results were used to code the presence of alcohol and the presence of 1 or more drugs including cocaine, opiate (oxycodone, heroin, etc.), or amphetamine or methamphetamine, yielding a 4-category variable: Alcohol + Drug, Alcohol (without drug), Drug (without alcohol), and Neither (ref). Suicides were compared to MVCs (ref) using unconditional logistic regression analyses adjusted for sex, age, and ethnicity. Poisoning suicides were removed prior to analyses to exclude cases where the drugs may have been used to hasten death. RESULTS: Analyses were based on 185 suicides and 161 MVCs. Alcohol + Drug was more likely in suicide decedents, AOR (95% CI) = 4.33 (1.70, 11.03). Alcohol (without drug) and Drug (without alcohol) did not differ between the groups. Uniquely, all suicides that were positive for cocaine were also positive for alcohol. As follow-up, similar results were obtained in a post hoc analysis that limited the drug exposure variable to cocaine: Alcohol + Cocaine, AOR (95% CI) = 4.69 (1.59, 13.88). CONCLUSIONS: The co-presence of alcohol and 1 or more drugs of abuse, particularly cocaine, may be more likely in suicide deaths compared to MVCs. Results may inform prevention efforts targeting specific substances and types of injury.

Family cohesion and pride, drinking and alcohol use disorder in Puerto Rico.

BACKGROUND: The extended multigenerational family is a core value of Hispanic culture. Family cohesion/pride can have protective effects on drinking- and drug-use-related behavior among Hispanics. OBJECTIVES: To examine the association between family cohesion/pride, drinking, binge drinking, and DSM-5 alcohol use disorder (AUD) in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Data are from a household random sample of 1510 individuals 18-64 years of age in San Juan, Puerto Rico. RESULTS: Bivariate analyses showed that family cohesion/pride was not associated with the average number of drinks consumed per week but was associated with binge drinking among men. Family cohesion/pride was also associated with DSM-5 AUD. Results of the multivariate analyses were consistent with these bivariate results for DSM-5 AUD. Respondents with low (OR = 2.2, 95CL = 1.21-3.98; p < .01) and medium (OR = 1.88; 95CL = 1.12-3.14; p < .01) family cohesion/pride were more likely than those with high family cohesion/pride to have a positive diagnosis of DSM-5 AUD. More liberal drinking norms and positive attitudes toward drinking were also strong predictors of the average number of drinks consumed per week. More liberal drinking norms also predicted binge drinking, and DSM-5 AUD. CONCLUSIONS: Higher family cohesion/pride may have a protective effect against DSM-5 AUD. This may have practical implications for clinical and prevention programs. As long as high cohesion is not enabling drinking, these programs can enhance and support family cohesion/pride to help clients in treatment and recovery and prevent drinking problems.

Employment Status, Depression, Drinking, and Alcohol Use Disorder in Puerto Rico.

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to examine the association between employment status, depression, drinking, binge drinking, and DSM-5 alcohol use disorder in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Data are from a 2013 to 2014 household random sample of individuals 18 to 64 years of age in San Juan, Puerto Rico. RESULTS: Bivariate analyses showed that depression was 5 times higher among unemployed males than among those employed full time (21% vs. 4%) and 2 times higher among unemployed females compared to those employed part time or full time (18% vs. 7% and 9%). Employment status was not associated with weekly volume of drinking, but nonparticipation in the workforce was protective against drinking (odds ratio [OR] = 2.17; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.03 to 4.57; p < 0.05) and binge drinking (OR = 0.62; 95% CI = 0.39 to 0.97; p < 0.05). This association could be due to the fact that those not in the work force may not be working due to sickness or disability. Male gender was a factor of risk for being a current drinker (OR = 2; 95% CI = 1.53 to 2.6; p < 0.001) and binge drinking (OR = 1.69; 95% CI = 1.29 to 2.2; p < 0.001). Male gender was protective against depression (OR = 0.32; 95% CI = 0.14 to 0.73; p < 0.01), but males employed only part time were almost 5 times more likely than females employed full time to be depressed (OR = 4.66; 95% CI = 1.25 to 17.38; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Employment status in Puerto Rico is associated with depression and with current drinking, but not with other alcohol-related outcomes. Perhaps Puerto Rico is a "wet" environment, where drinking is already at a relatively high level that is not affected by employment status. Perhaps the chronic high rate of unemployment in the island has also created familial (e.g., support) and personal level accommodations (e.g., participation in the informal economy) that do not include increased drinking.