Improved Durability to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Immunity following Coimmunization with Molecular Adjuvant Adenosine Deaminase-1.

Although severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines have demonstrated strong immunogenicity and protection against severe disease, concerns about the duration and breadth of these responses remain. In this study, we show that codelivery of plasmid-encoded adenosine deaminase-1 (pADA) with SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein DNA enhances immune memory and durability in vivo. Coimmunized mice displayed increased spike-specific IgG of higher affinity and neutralizing capacity as compared with plasmid-encoded spike-only-immunized animals. Importantly, pADA significantly improved the longevity of these enhanced responses in vivo. This coincided with durable increases in frequencies of plasmablasts, receptor-binding domain-specific memory B cells, and SARS-CoV-2-specific T follicular helper cells. Increased spike-specific T cell polyfunctionality was also observed. Notably, animals coimmunized with pADA had significantly reduced viral loads compared with their nonadjuvanted counterparts in a SARS-CoV-2 infection model. These data suggest that pADA enhances immune memory and durability and supports further translational studies.

Irreversible Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by Lectin Engagement with Two Glycan Clusters on the Spike Protein.

Host cell infection by SARS-CoV-2, similar to that by HIV-1, is driven by a conformationally metastable and highly glycosylated surface entry protein complex, and infection by these viruses has been shown to be inhibited by the mannose-specific lectins cyanovirin-N (CV-N) and griffithsin (GRFT). We discovered in this study that CV-N not only inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection but also leads to irreversibly inactivated pseudovirus particles. The irreversibility effect was revealed by the observation that pseudoviruses first treated with CV-N and then washed to remove all soluble lectin did not recover infectivity. The infection inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus mutants with single-site glycan mutations in spike suggested that two glycan clusters in S1 are important for both CV-N and GRFT inhibition: one cluster associated with the RBD (receptor binding domain) and the second with the S1/S2 cleavage site. We observed lectin antiviral effects with several SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus variants, including the recently emerged omicron, as well as a fully infectious coronavirus, therein reflecting the breadth of lectin antiviral function and the potential for pan-coronavirus inactivation. Mechanistically, observations made in this work indicate that multivalent lectin interaction with S1 glycans is likely a driver of the lectin infection inhibition and irreversible inactivation effect and suggest the possibility that lectin inactivation is caused by an irreversible conformational effect on spike. Overall, lectins' irreversible inactivation of SARS-CoV-2, taken with their breadth of function, reflects the therapeutic potential of multivalent lectins targeting the vulnerable metastable spike before host cell encounter.

Altered Env conformational dynamics as a mechanism of resistance to peptide-triazole HIV-1 inactivators.

BACKGROUND: We previously developed drug-like peptide triazoles (PTs) that target HIV-1 Envelope (Env) gp120, potently inhibit viral entry, and irreversibly inactivate virions. Here, we investigated potential mechanisms of viral escape from this promising class of HIV-1 entry inhibitors. RESULTS: HIV-1 resistance to cyclic (AAR029b) and linear (KR13) PTs was obtained by dose escalation in viral passaging experiments. High-level resistance for both inhibitors developed slowly (relative to escape from gp41-targeted C-peptide inhibitor C37) by acquiring mutations in gp120 both within (Val255) and distant to (Ser143) the putative PT binding site. The similarity in the resistance profiles for AAR029b and KR13 suggests that the shared IXW pharmacophore provided the primary pressure for HIV-1 escape. In single-round infectivity studies employing recombinant virus, V255I/S143N double escape mutants reduced PT antiviral potency by 150- to 3900-fold. Curiously, the combined mutations had a much smaller impact on PT binding affinity for monomeric gp120 (four to ninefold). This binding disruption was entirely due to the V255I mutation, which generated few steric clashes with PT in molecular docking. However, this minor effect on PT affinity belied large, offsetting changes to association enthalpy and entropy. The escape mutations had negligible effect on CD4 binding and utilization during entry, but significantly altered both binding thermodynamics and inhibitory potency of the conformationally-specific, anti-CD4i antibody 17b. Moreover, the escape mutations substantially decreased gp120 shedding induced by either soluble CD4 or AAR029b. CONCLUSIONS: Together, the data suggest that the escape mutations significantly modified the energetic landscape of Env's prefusogenic state, altering conformational dynamics to hinder PT-induced irreversible inactivation of Env. This work therein reveals a unique mode of virus escape for HIV-1, namely, resistance by altering the intrinsic conformational dynamics of the Env trimer.

Detection of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato infection by using extracts derived from a protoscoleces G1 cell line.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) can be diagnosed by means of several serological approaches, but their results vary among laboratories due to the molecular characteristics of the reference antigens used. Thus, this study aimed to address both the relevance of an EGPE cell line previously obtained from Echinococcus granulosus protoscoleces G1 and the complexity of the immune response by using two different in vitro growth stages as separate sources of parasite antigens. The serum reactivity was investigated by western blotting (WB) in 21 CE patients from an endemic area in a matched case-control design and also in seven experimentally infected sheep and five healthy control sheep. EGPE-antigen-human serum sensitivity by WB was higher than that of hydatid fluid (HF) WB, ELISA and DD5 (P < .05, Chi-square test). EGPE protein extract was immunogenic in mice and hyperimmune plasma reacted with HF proteins, and AgB2 expression was detected by molecular analysis. Proteins of 37 to 60 kDa were recognized by 95.24% of the CE patients' sera but, with poor specificity. Statistically significant differences were found between serum protein extract recognition at 7 and 20 days of cell growth. The EGPE cell line is a laboratory source of antigens for improvement of CE serological diagnosis.

Injectable Granular Hydrogels Enable Avidity-Controlled Biotherapeutic Delivery.

Protein therapeutics represent a rapidly growing class of pharmaceutical agents that hold great promise for the treatment of various diseases such as cancer and autoimmune dysfunction. Conventional systemic delivery approaches, however, result in off-target drug exposure and a short therapeutic half-life, highlighting the need for more localized and controlled delivery. We have developed an affinity-based protein delivery system that uses guest-host complexation between ß-cyclodextrin (CD, host) and adamantane (Ad, guest) to enable sustained localized biomolecule presentation. Hydrogels were formed by the copolymerization of methacrylated CD and methacrylated dextran. Extrusion fragmentation of bulk hydrogels yielded shear-thinning and self-healing granular hydrogels (particle diameter = 32.4 ± 16.4 µm) suitable for minimally invasive delivery and with a high host capacity for the retention of guest-modified proteins. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was controllably conjugated to Ad via EDC chemistry without affecting the affinity of the Ad moiety for CD (KD = 12.0 ± 1.81 µM; isothermal titration calorimetry). The avidity of Ad-BSA conjugates was directly tunable through the number of guest groups attached, resulting in a fourfold increase in the complex half-life (t1/2 = 5.07 ± 1.23 h, surface plasmon resonance) that enabled a fivefold reduction in protein release at 28 days. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the conjugation of Ad to immunomodulatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, and IFNγ) did not detrimentally affect cytokine bioactivity and enabled their sustained release. Our strategy of avidity-controlled delivery of protein-based therapeutics is a promising approach for the sustained local presentation of protein therapeutics and can be applied to numerous biomedical applications.

The molecular immune modulator adenosine deaminase-1 enhances HIV specific humoral and cellular responses to a native-like HIV envelope trimer DNA vaccine.

There is currently no prophylactic vaccine available for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Research efforts have resulted in improved immunogens that mimic the native envelope (Env) glycoprotein structure. Recently, a novel triple tandem trimer (TTT) platform has been used to generate a plasmid encoding Env immunogen (pBG505-TTT) that expresses only as trimers, making it more suitable for nucleic acid vaccines. We have previously demonstrated that adenosine deaminase-1 (ADA-1) is critical to the T follicular helper (TFH) function and improves vaccine immune responses in vivo. In this study, we demonstrate that co-delivery of plasmid-encoded adenosine deaminase 1 (pADA) with pBG505-TTT enhances the magnitude, durability, isotype switching and functionality of HIV-specific antibodies in a dose-sparing manner. Co-delivery of the molecular immune modulator ADA-1 also enhances HIV-specific T cell polyfunctionality, activation, and degranulation as well as memory B cell responses. These data demonstrate that pADA enhances HIV-specific cellular and humoral immunity, making ADA-1 a promising immune modulator for HIV-targeting vaccines.

Pharmacophore Variants of the Macrocyclic Peptide Triazole Inactivator of HIV-1 Env.

Previously we established a family of macrocyclic peptide triazoles (cPTs) that inactivate the Env protein complex of HIV-1, and identified the pharmacophore that engages Env's receptor binding pocket. Here, we examined the hypothesis that the side chains of both components of the triazole Pro - Trp segment of cPT pharmacophore work in tandem to make intimate contacts with two proximal subsites of the overall CD4 binding site of gp120 to stabilize binding and function. Variations of the triazole Pro R group, which previously had been significantly optimized, led to identification of a variant MG-II-20 that contains a pyrazole substitution. MG-II-20 has improved functional properties over previously examined variants, with Kd for gp120 in the nM range. In contrast, new variants of the Trp indole side chain, with either methyl- or bromo- components appended, had disruptive effects on gp120 binding, reflecting the sensitivity of function to changes in this component of the encounter complex. Plausible in silico models of cPT:gp120 complex structures were obtained that are consistent with the overall hypothesisof occupancy by the triazole Pro and Trp side chains, respectively, into the ß20/21 and Phe43 sub-cavities. The overall results strengthen the definition of the cPT-Env inactivator binding site and provide a new lead composition (MG-II-20) as well as structure-function findings to guide future HIV-1 Env inactivator design.

Adenosine deaminase augments SARS-CoV-2 specific cellular and humoral responses in aged mouse models of immunization and challenge.

Despite numerous clinically available vaccines and therapeutics, aged patients remain at increased risk for COVID-19 morbidity. Furthermore, various patient populations, including the aged can have suboptimal responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccine antigens. Here, we characterized vaccine-induced responses to SARS-CoV-2 synthetic DNA vaccine antigens in aged mice. Aged mice exhibited altered cellular responses, including decreased IFNγ secretion and increased TNFα and IL-4 secretion suggestive of TH2-skewed responses. Aged mice exhibited decreased total binding and neutralizing antibodies in their serum but significantly increased TH2-type antigen-specific IgG1 antibody compared to their young counterparts. Strategies to enhance vaccine-induced immune responses are important, especially in aged patient populations. We observed that co-immunization with plasmid-encoded adenosine deaminase (pADA)enhanced immune responses in young animals. Ageing is associated with decreases in ADA function and expression. Here, we report that co-immunization with pADA enhanced IFNγ secretion while decreasing TNFα and IL-4 secretion. pADA expanded the breadth and affinity SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific antibodies while supporting TH1-type humoral responses in aged mice. scRNAseq analysis of aged lymph nodes revealed that pADA co-immunization supported a TH1 gene profile and decreased FoxP3 gene expression. Upon challenge, pADA co-immunization decreased viral loads in aged mice. These data support the use of mice as a model for age-associated decreased vaccine immunogenicity and infection-mediated morbidity and mortality in the context of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and provide support for the use of adenosine deaminase as a molecular adjuvant in immune-challenged populations.

Characterization of neutralizing affinity-matured human respiratory syncytial virus F binding antibodies in the sub-picomolar affinity range.

In the human adaptation and optimization of a mouse anti-human respiratory syncytial virus neutralizing antibody, affinity assessment was crucial to distinguish among potential candidates and to evaluate whether this correlated with function in vitro and in vivo. This affinity assessment was complicated by the trimeric nature of the antigen target, respiratory syncytial virus F (RSV-F) glycoprotein. In the initial affinity screen, surface plasmon resonance was used to determine the intrinsic binding affinities of anti-RSV-F Fab and immunoglobulin G (IgG) to the extracellular domain of RSV-F. This assessment required minimal biotinylation of the RSV-F protein and design of a capture strategy to minimize avidity effects. Approximately 30 Fabs were selected from three optimization phage display libraries on the basis of an initial ELISA screen. Surface plasmon resonance analysis demonstrated the success of optimization with some candidates from the screened libraries having low picomolar dissociation constants, more than 700-fold tighter than the parental monoclonal antibody (B21M). The affinities of these antibodies were further evaluated by a kinetic exclusion assay, a solution binding technology. One IgG (monoclonal antibody 029) displayed a low picomolar K(D) comparable with that of motavizumab, an RSV antibody in clinical study. Kinetic exclusion assay showed that two other of the matured IgGs (011 and 019) had sub-picomolar dissociation constants that could not be resolved further. We discuss the relevance of these interaction analysis results in the light of recently published data on the mechanism of F-driven viral fusion during paramyxoviral infection and 101F epitope conservation revealed from the recent crystal structure of RSV-F in the post-fusion state.

His-tag binding by antibody C706 mimics ß-amyloid recognition.

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by extracellular deposits of ß-amyloid (Aß) plaques. Aggregation of the Aß(42) peptide leading to plaque formation is believed to play a central role in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Anti-Aß monoclonal antibodies can reduce amyloid plaques and could possibly be used for immunotherapy. We have developed a monoclonal antibody C706, which recognizes the human Aß peptide. Here we report the crystal structure of the antibody Fab fragment at 1.7 Å resolution. The structure was determined in two crystal forms, P2(1) and C2. Although the Fab was crystallized in the presence of Aß(16), no peptide was observed in the crystals. The antigen-binding site is blocked by the hexahistidine tag of another Fab molecule in both crystal forms. The poly-His peptide in an extended conformation occupies a crevice between the light and heavy chains of the variable domain. Two consecutive histidines (His4-His5) stack against tryptophan residues in the central pocket of the antigen-binding surface. In addition, they form hydrogen bonds to the acidic residues at the bottom of the pocket. The mode of his-tag binding by C706 resembles the Aß recognition by antibodies PFA1 and WO2. All three antibodies recognize the same immunodominant B-cell epitope of Aß. By similarity, residues Phe-Arg-His of Aß would be a major portion of the C706 epitope.

The Case for S2: The Potential Benefits of the S2 Subunit of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein as an Immunogen in Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic.

As COVID-19 cases continue to rise, it is imperative to learn more about antibodies and T-cells produced against the causative virus, SARS-CoV-2, in order to guide the rapid development of therapies and vaccines. While much of the current antibody and vaccine research focuses on the receptor-binding domain of S1, a less-recognized opportunity is to harness the potential benefits of the more conserved S2 subunit. Similarities between the spike proteins of both SARS-CoV-2 and HIV-1 warrant exploring S2. Possible benefits of employing S2 in therapies and vaccines include the structural conservation of S2, extant cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies in populations (due to prior exposure to common cold coronaviruses), the steric neutralization potential of antibodies against S2, and the stronger memory B-cell and T-cell responses. More research is necessary on the effect of glycans on the accessibility and stability of S2, SARS-CoV-2 mutants that may affect infectivity, the neutralization potential of antibodies produced by memory B-cells, cross-reactive T-cell responses, antibody-dependent enhancement, and antigen competition. This perspective aims to highlight the evidence for the potential advantages of using S2 as a target of therapy or vaccine design.

A Novel Splice Variant of Human TGF-ß Type II Receptor Encodes a Soluble Protein and Its Fc-Tagged Version Prevents Liver Fibrosis in vivo.

We describe, for the first time, a new splice variant of the human TGF-ß type II receptor (TßRII). The new transcript lacks 149 nucleotides, resulting in a frameshift and the emergence of an early stop codon, rendering a truncated mature protein of 57 amino acids. The predicted protein, lacking the transmembrane domain and with a distinctive 13-amino-acid stretch at its C-terminus, was named TßRII-Soluble Endogenous (TßRII-SE). Binding predictions indicate that the novel 13-amino-acid stretch interacts with all three TGF-ß cognate ligands and generates a more extensive protein-protein interface than TßRII. TßRII-SE and human IgG1 Fc domain were fused in frame in a lentiviral vector (Lv) for further characterization. With this vector, we transduced 293T cells and purified TßRII-SE/Fc by A/G protein chromatography from conditioned medium. Immunoblotting revealed homogeneous bands of approximately 37 kDa (reduced) and 75 kDa (non-reduced), indicating that TßRII-SE/Fc is secreted as a disulfide-linked homodimer. Moreover, high-affinity binding of TßRII-SE to the three TGF-ß isoforms was confirmed by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis. Also, intrahepatic delivery of Lv.TßRII-SE/Fc in a carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis model revealed amelioration of liver injury and fibrosis. Our results indicate that TßRII-SE is a novel member of the TGF-ß signaling pathway with distinctive characteristics. This novel protein offers an alternative for the prevention and treatment of pathologies caused by the overproduction of TGF-ß ligands.

Single-Domain Antibodies and the Promise of Modular Targeting in Cancer Imaging and Treatment.

Monoclonal antibodies and their fragments have significantly changed the outcome of cancer in the clinic, effectively inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, triggering antibody-dependent immune effector cell activation and complement mediated cell death. Along with a continued expansion in number, diversity, and complexity of validated tumor targets there is an increasing focus on engineering recombinant antibody fragments for lead development. Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs), in particular those engineered from the variable heavy-chain fragment (VHH gene) found in Camelidae heavy-chain antibodies (or IgG2 and IgG3), are the smallest fragments that retain the full antigen-binding capacity of the antibody with advantageous properties as drugs. For similar reasons, growing attention is being paid to the yet smaller variable heavy chain new antigen receptor (VNAR) fragments found in Squalidae. sdAbs have been selected, mostly from immune VHH libraries, to inhibit or modulate enzyme activity, bind soluble factors, internalize cell membrane receptors, or block cytoplasmic targets. This succinct review is a compilation of recent data documenting the application of engineered, recombinant sdAb in the clinic as epitope recognition "modules" to build monomeric, dimeric and multimeric ligands that target, tag and stall solid tumor growth in vivo. Size, affinity, specificity, and the development profile of sdAbs drugs are seemingly consistent with desirable clinical efficacy and safety requirements. But the hepatotoxicity of the tetrameric anti-DR5-VHH drug in patients with pre-existing anti-drug antibodies halted the phase I clinical trial and called for a thorough pre-screening of the immune and poly-specific reactivities of the sdAb leads.

Down modulation of human TLR3 function by a monoclonal antibody.

Toll-like receptors are a family of pattern-recognition receptors that contribute to the innate immune response. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) signals in response to foreign, endogenous and synthetic ligands including viral dsRNA, bacterial RNA, mitochondrial RNA, endogenous necrotic cell mRNA and the synthetic dsRNA analog, poly(I:C). We have generated a monoclonal antibody (mAb CNTO2424) that recognizes the extracellular domain (ECD) of human TLR3 in a conformation-dependent manner. CNTO2424 down-regulates poly(I:C)-induced production of IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, RANTES, and IP-10 in human lung epithelial cells. In addition, mAb CNTO2424 was able to interfere with the known TLR3-dependent signaling pathways, namely NF-kappaB, IRF-3/ISRE, and p38 MAPK. The generation of this neutralizing anti-TLR3 mAb provides a unique tool to better understand TLR3 signaling and potential cross-talk between TLR3 and other molecules.

Llama nanoantibodies with therapeutic potential against human norovirus diarrhea.

Noroviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis, but no vaccines or therapeutic drugs are available. Llama-derived single chain antibody fragments (also called VHH) are small, recombinant monoclonal antibodies of 15 kDa with several advantages over conventional antibodies. The aim of this study was to generate recombinant monoclonal VHH specific for the two major norovirus (NoV) genogroups (GI and GII) in order to investigate their potential as immunotherapy for the treatment of NoV diarrhea. To accomplish this objective, two llamas were immunized with either GI.1 (Norwalk-1968) or GII.4 (MD2004) VLPs. After immunization, peripheral blood lymphocytes were collected and used to generate two VHH libraries. Using phage display technology, 10 VHH clones specific for GI.1, and 8 specific for GII.4 were selected for further characterization. All VHH recognized conformational epitopes in the P domain of the immunizing VP1 capsid protein, with the exception of one GII.4 VHH that recognized a linear P domain epitope. The GI.1 VHHs were highly specific for the immunizing GI.1 genotype, with only one VHH cross-reacting with GI.3 genotype. The GII.4 VHHs reacted with the immunizing GII.4 strain and showed a varying reactivity profile among different GII genotypes. One VHH specific for GI.1 and three specific for GII.4 could block the binding of homologous VLPs to synthetic HBGA carbohydrates, saliva, and pig gastric mucin, and in addition, could inhibit the hemagglutination of red blood cells by homologous VLPs. The ability of Nov-specific VHHs to perform well in these surrogate neutralization assays supports their further development as immunotherapy for NoV treatment and immunoprophylaxis.

Structure-based design of mimetics for granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF).

Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) activity has been linked to pro-inflammatory effects in autoimmune syndromes, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Thus GM-CSF mimetics with antagonist activity might play a therapeutic role in these diseases. The human GM-CSF core structure consists of a four alpha-helix bundle, and GM-CSF activity is controlled by its binding to a two-subunit receptor. A number of residues located on the B and C helices of GM-CSF are postulated to interact with the alpha chain of the GM-CSF receptor (GM-CSFR). Several approaches have been successfully utilized to develop peptide mimetics of this site, including peptides from the native sequence, a peptide derived from a recombinant antibody (rAb) light chain which mimicked GM-CSF receptor binding activity, and structurally guided de novo design. Analysis of the rAb light chain had suggested mimicry of GM-CSF with residues mostly contributed by the CDR I region. Key residues involved in CDR I peptide/GM-CSFR binding were identified by truncation and alteration of individual residues, while the structural elements required to antagonize the biological action of GM-CSF were separately tested in binding and inhibitory activity assays of multiple cyclic analogues. A peptide designed to retain the loop conformation of the CDR I region of the rAb light chain competed with GM-CSF for both antibody and receptor binding, but the role of specific residues in antibody versus receptor binding differed markedly. These studies suggest that structural analysis of peptide mimetics can reveal differences in receptor and antibody binding, perhaps including key interactions that impact binding kinetics. Peptide mimetics of other four-helix bundle cytokines are reviewed, including helical and reverse turn mimetics of helical structures. Use of peptide mimetics coupled with structural and kinetic analysis provides a powerful approach to identifying important receptor-ligand interactions, which implications for rational design of novel therapeutics.

High blood pressure, overweight and obesity among rural scholars from the Vela Project: a population-based study from South America.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have shown that high blood pressure and overweight begins in childhood. Consequently, it is useful to know blood pressure and body mass index (BMI) values from an early age. There are few data about blood pressure control in children and adolescents from rural populations in South America. AIM: The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of high blood pressure and its association with sedentary habits and overweight/obesity in scholars from a rural population in Argentina. METHODS: The study population for this cross-sectional study was composed of rural children and adolescent scholars from Maria Ignacia Vela. Pre-hypertension and hypertension were defined on the basis of percentiles from the average of three blood pressure measurements taken on a single occasion. In patients with three blood pressure measurements above the 90th percentile, ambulatory blood pressure monitoring was performed to confirm hypertension or pre-hypertension. BMI was categorized by using the 2000 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention growth charts. RESULTS: We studied 334 scholars (aged 5-18 years). Mean age was 11.4 years. In 70% of the subjects, blood pressure had never been measured. The prevalence of high blood pressure was 4.4%. Students with sedentary habits were 3.67-fold more likely to develop high blood pressure than their physically active counterparts (odds ratio [OR] 3.67; 95% CI 1.08, 12.46; p = 0.037). Obese students were more likely to develop hypertension than the students with normal weight (OR = 5.17; 95% CI 1.52, 17.60; p = 0.02). Male students had a 3.4-fold higher risk of developing high blood pressure than females. CONCLUSIONS: In our rural population, the evaluation of blood pressure in children and adolescents is not a routine measure. Our data indicate a low prevalence of high blood pressure. These data could argue differences between rural and urban scholars. Our data demonstrate a close relationship between increased overweight, obesity and sedentary lifestyle with the development of high blood pressure. We emphasize the importance of blood pressure controls and the need to implement programmes to modify sedentary lifestyle in rural populations.

Structure-based engineering of a monoclonal antibody for improved solubility.

Protein aggregation is of great concern to pharmaceutical formulations and has been implicated in several diseases. We engineered an anti-IL-13 monoclonal antibody CNTO607 for improved solubility. Three structure-based engineering approaches were employed in this study: (i) modifying the isoelectric point (pI), (ii) decreasing the overall surface hydrophobicity and (iii) re-introducing an N-linked carbohydrate moiety within a complementarity-determining region (CDR) sequence. A mutant was identified with a modified pI that had a 2-fold improvement in solubility while retaining the binding affinity to IL-13. Several mutants with decreased overall surface hydrophobicity also showed moderately improved solubility while maintaining a similar antigen affinity. Structural studies combined with mutagenesis data identified an aggregation 'hot spot' in heavy-chain CDR3 (H-CDR3) that contains three residues ((99)FHW(100a)). The same residues, however, were found to be essential for high affinity binding to IL-13. On the basis of the spatial proximity and germline sequence, we reintroduced the consensus N-glycosylation site in H-CDR2 which was found in the original antibody, anticipating that the carbohydrate moiety would shield the aggregation 'hot spot' in H-CDR3 while not interfering with antigen binding. Peptide mapping and mass spectrometric analysis revealed that the N-glycosylation site was generally occupied. This variant showed greatly improved solubility and bound to IL-13 with affinity similar to CNTO607 without the N-linked carbohydrate. All three engineering approaches led to improved solubility and adding an N-linked carbohydrate to the CDR was the most effective route for enhancing the solubility of CNTO607.

Targeting carbohydrate antigens in HIV vaccine development.

Peptide mimotopes provide a strategy to augment human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) specific carbohydrate reactive immune responses. Their antigenic and immunological properties will depend on the optimization of motif clustering and multimerization. We observe that structural variants of the same mimetic motif, linear versus cyclic, can be used to tune the properties of the antibodies elicited. The expansion of the database of mimotope sequence motifs can be increased by analyzing structures that bind to HIV directed monoclonal antibody 2G12 and the lectin Concanavalin A (Con A), fostering new mimotope designs. Such analysis indicates that these reagents bind to subsets of mannosyl antigens on the envelope (env) protein.