A non-pheromone GPCR is essential for meiosis and ascosporogenesis in the wheat scab fungus.

Meiosis is essential for generating genetic diversity and sexual spores, but the regulation of meiosis and ascosporogenesis is not clear in filamentous fungi, in which dikaryotic and diploid cells formed inside fruiting bodies are not free living and independent of pheromones or pheromone receptors. In this study, Gia1, a non-pheromone GPCR (G protein-coupled receptor) with sexual-specific expression in Fusarium graminearum, is found to be essential for ascosporogenesis. The gia1 mutant was normal in perithecium development, crozier formation, and karyogamy but failed to undergo meiosis, which could be partially rescued by a dominant active mutation in GPA1 and activation of the Gpmk1 pathway. GIA1 orthologs have conserved functions in regulating meiosis and ascosporogenesis in Sordariomycetes. GIA1 has a paralog, GIP1, in F. graminearum and other Hypocreales species which is essential for perithecium formation. GIP1 differed from GIA1 in expression profiles and downstream signaling during sexual reproduction. Whereas the C-terminal tail and IR3 were important for intracellular signaling, the N-terminal region and EL3 of Gia1 were responsible for recognizing its ligand, which is likely a protein enriched in developing perithecia, particularly in the gia1 mutant. Taken together, these results showed that GIA1 encodes a non-pheromone GPCR that regulates the entry into meiosis and ascosporogenesis via the downstream Gpmk1 MAP kinase pathway in F. graminearum and other filamentous ascomycetes.

Differential sensitivity to longitudinal and transverse stretch mediates transcriptional responses in mouse neonatal ventricular myocytes.

To identify how cardiomyocyte mechanosensitive signaling pathways are regulated by anisotropic stretch, micropatterned mouse neonatal cardiomyocytes were stretched primarily longitudinally or transversely to the myofiber axis. Four hours of static, longitudinal stretch induced differential expression of 557 genes, compared with 30 induced by transverse stretch, measured using RNA-seq. A logic-based ordinary differential equation model of the cardiac myocyte mechanosignaling network, extended to include the transcriptional regulation and expression of 784 genes, correctly predicted measured expression changes due to anisotropic stretch with 69% accuracy. The model also predicted published transcriptional responses to mechanical load in vitro or in vivo with 63-91% accuracy. The observed differences between transverse and longitudinal stretch responses were not explained by differential activation of specific pathways but rather by an approximately twofold greater sensitivity to longitudinal stretch than transverse stretch. In vitro experiments confirmed model predictions that stretch-induced gene expression is more sensitive to angiotensin II and endothelin-1, via RhoA and MAP kinases, than to the three membrane ion channels upstream of calcium signaling in the network. Quantitative cardiomyocyte gene expression differs substantially with the axis of maximum principal stretch relative to the myofilament axis, but this difference is due primarily to differences in stretch sensitivity rather than to selective activation of mechanosignaling pathways.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Anisotropic stretch applied to micropatterned neonatal mouse ventricular myocytes induced markedly greater acute transcriptional responses when the major axis of stretch was parallel to the myofilament axis than when it was transverse. Analysis with a novel quantitative network model of mechanoregulated cardiomyocyte gene expression suggests that this difference is explained by higher cell sensitivity to longitudinal loading than transverse loading than by the activation of differential signaling pathways.

A novel alternavirus with three dsRNA segments from Fusarium pseudograminearum, the pathogen of Fusarium crown rot in wheat.

Three dsRNA segments were detected in Fusarium pseudograminearum strain CF14029, a pathogen causing Fusarium crown rot in China. Characterization and sequence analysis confirmed that these dsRNA sequences originated from the same virus. The viral genome consists of three dsRNA segments: dsRNA1 (3,560 nt in length), encoding an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), dsRNA2 (2,544 nt in length), encoding a hypothetical protein, and dsRNA3 (2,478 nt in length), encoding a putative coat protein (CP). Phylogenetic analysis based on the RdRp and CP amino acid sequences revealed a high degree of similarity of this virus to members of the genus Alternavirus, family Alternaviridae, isolated from other Fusarium fungi. As a novel member of the genus Alternavirus, this virus was provisionally named "Fusarium pseudograminearum alternavirus 1" (FpgAV1). Like other alternaviruses found in Fusarium species, the positive-sense strand of each genomic dsRNA of FpgAV1 possesses a poly(A) tail and a distinctive 5'-terminal octamer sequence (5'-GCT GTG TG-3'). This is the first report of the genomic sequence of an alternavirus identified in F. pseudograminearum.

Efficacy of cyclobutrifluram in controlling Fusarium crown rot of wheat and resistance risk of three Fusarium species to cyclobutrifluram.

Cyclobutrifluram (TYMIRIUM® technology), a new succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI) fungicide, is currently being registered by SYNGENTA for controlling Fusarium crown rot (FCR) of wheat in China. The application of 15 or 30 g of active ingredient/100 kg seed of cyclobutrifluram significantly reduced pre-emergence damping-off, discoloration on the stem base and formation of whiteheads caused by FCR. The EC50 values of cyclobutrifluram for 60 isolates of F. pseudograminearum, 30 isolates of F. asiaticum and 30 isolates of F. graminearum ranged from 0.016 to 0.142 mg L-1, 0.010 to 0.041 mg L-1 and 0.012 to 0.059 mg L-1, respectively. One hundred and seven cyclobutrifluram-resistant (CR) mutants were obtained from three Fusarium species isolates, with ten types of mutations identified in Sdh genes. Three Fusarium species isolates exhibited similar resistance mechanisms, with the most prevalent mutations, SdhC1A83V and SdhC1R86K, accounting for 61.68% of mutants. The CR mutants possessed comparable or slightly impaired fitness compared to the corresponding parental isolates. The CR mutants carrying FpSdhBH248Y/Q/D exhibited increased sensitivity to fluopyram. An overall moderate risk of resistance development in three Fusarium species was recommended for cyclobutrifluram.

Genome Analyses Reveal the Secondary Metabolites that Potentially Influence the Geographical Distribution of Fusarium pseudograminearum Populations.

Fusarium crown rot (FCR), caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum, significantly impacts wheat yield and quality in China's Huanghuai region. The rapid F. pseudograminearum epidemic and FCR outbreak within a decade remain unexplained. In this study, two high-quality, chromosome-level genomes of F. pseudograminearum strains producing 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3AcDON) and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15AcDON) toxins were assembled. Additionally, 38 related strains were resequenced. Genomic differences such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertions/deletions (indels), and structural variations (SVs) among F. pseudograminearum strains were analyzed. The whole-genome SNP locus-based population classification mirrored the toxin chemotype (3AcDON and 15AcDON)-based classification, indicating the presence of genes associated with the trichothecene toxin gene cluster. Further analysis of differential SNP, indel, and SV loci between the 3AcDON and 15AcDON populations revealed a predominant connection to secondary metabolite synthesis genes. Notably, the majority of the secondary metabolite biosynthesis gene cluster loci were located in SNP-dense genomic regions, suggesting high mutability and a possible contribution to F. pseudograminearum population structure and environmental adaptability. This study provides insightful perspectives on the distribution and evolution of F. pseudograminearum and for forecasting the spread of wheat FCR, thereby aiding in the development of preventive measures and control strategies.

UDP-Galactopyranose Mutase Mediates Cell Wall Integrity, Polarity Growth, and Virulence in Fusarium graminearum.

CHY1 is a zinc finger protein unique to microorganisms that was found to regulate polarized tip growth in Fusarium graminearum, an important pathogen of wheat and barley. To further characterize its functions, in this study we identified CHY1-interacting proteins by affinity purification and selected UDP-galactofuranose (Galf) mutase (UGMA) for detailed characterization, because UGMA and UDP-Galf are unique to fungi and bacteria and absent in plants and animals. The interaction between CHY1 and UGMA was confirmed by yeast two-hybrid assays. Deletion of UGMA in F. graminearum resulted in significant defects in vegetative growth, reproduction, cell wall integrity, and pathogenicity. Infection with the ΔugmA mutant was restricted to the inoculated floret, and no vomitoxin was detected in kernels inoculated with the ΔugmA strain. Compared to the wild type, the ΔugmA mutant produced wide, highly branched hyphae with thick walls, as visualized by transmission electron microscopy. UGMA tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) mainly localized to the cytoplasm, consistent with the synthesis of Galf in the cytoplasm. The Δchy1 mutant was more sensitive, while the ΔugmA mutant was more tolerant, to cell wall-degrading enzymes. The growth of the ΔugmA mutant nearly ceased upon caspofungin treatment. More interestingly, nocodazole treatment of the ΔugmA strain attenuated its highly branched morphology, while caspofungin inhibited the degree of the twisted Δchy1 mycelia, indicating that CHY1 and UGMA probably have opposite effects on cell wall architecture. In conclusion, UGMA is an important pathogenic factor that is specific to fungi and bacteria and required for cell wall architecture, radial growth, and caspofungin tolerance, and it appears to be a promising target for antifungal agent development. IMPORTANCE The long-term use of chemical pesticides has had increasingly negative impacts on the ecological environment and human health. Low-toxicity, high-efficiency and environmentally friendly alternative pesticides are of great significance for maintaining the sustainable development of agriculture and human and environmental health. Using fungus- or microbe-specific genes as candidate targets provides a good foundation for the development of low-toxicity, environmentally friendly pesticides. In this study, we characterized a fungus- and bacterium-specific UDP-galactopyranose mutase gene, ugmA, that contributes to the synthesis of the cell wall component Galf and is required for vegetative growth, cell wall integrity, deoxynivalenol (DON) production, and pathogenicity in F. graminearum. The ugmA deletion mutant exhibited increased sensitivity to caspofungin. These results demonstrate the functional importance of UGMA in F. graminearum, and its absence from mammals and higher plants constitutes a considerable advantage as a low-toxicity target for the development of new anti-Fusarium agents.

The CHY-Type Zinc Finger Protein FgChy1 Regulates Polarized Growth, Pathogenicity, and Microtubule Assembly in Fusarium graminearum.

Microtubules (MTs), as transport tracks, play important roles in hyphal-tip growth in filamentous fungi, but MT-associated proteins involved in polarized growth remain unknown. Here, we found that one novel zinc finger protein, FgChy1, is required for MT morphology and polarized growth in Fusarium graminearum. The Fgchy1 mutant presented curved and directionless growth of hyphae. Importantly, the conidia and germ tubes of the Fgchy1 mutant exhibited badly damaged and less-organized beta-tubulin cytoskeletons. Compared with the wild type, the Fgchy1 mutant lost the ability to maintain polarity and was also more sensitive to the anti-MT drugs carbendazim and nocodazole, likely due to the impaired MT cytoskeleton. Indeed, the hyphae of the wild type treated with nocodazole exhibited a morphology consistent with that of the Fgchy1 mutant. Interestingly, the disruption of FgChy1 resulted in the off-center localization of actin patches and the polarity-related polarisome protein FgSpa2 from the hyphal-tip axis. A similar defect in FgSpa2 localization was also observed in the nocodazole-treated wild-type strain. In addition, FgChy1 is also required for conidiogenesis, septation, sexual reproduction, pathogenicity, and deoxynivalenol production. Overall, this study provides the first demonstrations of the functions of the novel zinc finger protein FgChy1 in polarized growth, development, and virulence in filamentous fungi.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Quantification of uncertainty in a new network model of pulmonary arterial adventitial fibroblast pro-fibrotic signalling.

Here, we present a novel network model of the pulmonary arterial adventitial fibroblast (PAAF) that represents seven signalling pathways, confirmed to be important in pulmonary arterial fibrosis, as 92 reactions and 64 state variables. Without optimizing parameters, the model correctly predicted 80% of 39 results of input-output and inhibition experiments reported in 20 independent papers not used to formulate the original network. Parameter uncertainty quantification (UQ) showed that this measure of model accuracy is robust to changes in input weights and half-maximal activation levels (EC50), but is more affected by uncertainty in the Hill coefficient (n), which governs the biochemical cooperativity or steepness of the sigmoidal activation function of each state variable. Epistemic uncertainty in model structure, due to the reliance of some network components and interactions on experiments using non-PAAF cell types, suggested that this source of uncertainty had a smaller impact on model accuracy than the alternative of reducing the network to only those interactions reported in PAAFs. UQ highlighted model parameters that can be optimized to improve prediction accuracy and network modules where there is the greatest need for new experiments. This article is part of the theme issue 'Uncertainty quantification in cardiac and cardiovascular modelling and simulation'.

Quantification of model and data uncertainty in a network analysis of cardiac myocyte mechanosignalling.

Cardiac myocytes transduce changes in mechanical loading into cellular responses via interacting cell signalling pathways. We previously reported a logic-based ordinary differential equation model of the myocyte mechanosignalling network that correctly predicts 78% of independent experimental results not used to formulate the original model. Here, we use Monte Carlo and polynomial chaos expansion simulations to examine the effects of uncertainty in parameter values, model logic and experimental validation data on the assessed accuracy of that model. The prediction accuracy of the model was robust to parameter changes over a wide range being least sensitive to uncertainty in time constants and most affected by uncertainty in reaction weights. Quantifying epistemic uncertainty in the reaction logic of the model showed that while replacing 'OR' with 'AND' reactions greatly reduced model accuracy, replacing 'AND' with 'OR' reactions was more likely to maintain or even improve accuracy. Finally, data uncertainty had a modest effect on assessment of model accuracy. This article is part of the theme issue 'Uncertainty quantification in cardiac and cardiovascular modelling and simulation'.

The cAMP-PKA pathway regulates growth, sexual and asexual differentiation, and pathogenesis in Fusarium graminearum.

Like many other filamentous ascomycetes, Fusarium graminearum contains two genes named CPK1 and CPK2 that encode the catalytic subunits of cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase A (PKA). To determine the role of cAMP signaling in pathogenesis and development in F. graminearum, we functionally characterized these two genes. In addition, we generated and characterized the cpk1 cpk2 double and fac1 adenylate cyclase gene deletion mutants. The cpk1 mutant was significantly reduced in vegetative growth, conidiation, and deoxynivalenol production but it had increased tolerance to elevated temperatures. It was defective in the production of penetration branches on plant surfaces, colonization of wheat rachises, and spreading in flowering wheat heads. Deletion of CPK1 had no effect on perithecium development but the cpk1 mutant was defective in ascospore maturation and releasing. In contrast, the cpk2 mutant had no detectable phenotypes, suggesting that CPK2 contributes minimally to PKA activities in F. graminearum. Nevertheless, the cpk1 cpk2 double mutant had more severe defects in vegetative growth and rarely produced morphologically abnormal conidia. The double mutant, unlike the cpk1 or cpk2 mutant, was nonpathogenic and failed to form perithecia on self-mating plates. Therefore, CPK1 and CPK2 must have overlapping functions in vegetative growth, differentiation, and plant infection in F. graminearum. The fac1 mutant was also nonpathogenic and had growth defects similar to those of the cpk1 cpk2 mutant. However, deletion of FAC1 had no effect on conidium morphology. These results indicated that CPK1 is the major PKA catalytic subunit gene and that the cAMP-PKA pathway plays critical roles in hyphal growth, conidiation, ascosporogenesis, and plant infection in F. graminearum.

The critical roles of the Zn2Cys6 transcription factor Fp487 in the development and virulence of Fusarium pseudograminearum: A potential target for Fusarium crown rot control.

Fusarium crown rot (FCR) caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum poses a significant threat to wheat production in the Huang-Huai-Hai region of China. However, the pathogenic mechanism of F. pseudograminearum is still poorly understood. Zn2Cys6 transcription factors, which are exclusive to fungi, play pivotal roles in regulating fungal development, drug resistance, pathogenicity, and secondary metabolism. In this study, we present the functional characterization of a Zn2Cys6 transcription factor F. pseudograminearum, designated Fp487. In F. pseudograminearum, Fp487 is shown to be required for mycelial growth through gene knockout and phenotypic analyses. Compared with wild-type CF14047, the ∆Fp487 mutant displayed a slight reduction in growth rate but a significant decrease in conidiogenesis, pathogenicity and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3AcDON) production. Moreover, the mutant exhibited heightened sensitivity to oxidative and cytomembrane stress. Furthermore, we synthesized dsRNA from the Fp487 gene in vitro, resulting in a reduction in the growth rate of F. pseudograminearum and its virulence on barley leaves through spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS). Notably, this study makes the first instance of inducing the expression of abundant dsRNA from F. pseudograminearum by engineering the Escherichia coli strain HT115 (DE3) and utilizing the SIGS technique to evaluate the virulence effect of dsRNA on F. pseudograminearum. In conclusion, our findings revealed the crucial role of Fp487 in regulating pathogenicity, stress responses, DON production, and conidiogenesis in F. pseudograminearum. Furthermore, Fp487 is a potential RNAi-based target for FCR control.

Extreme Diversity of Mycoviruses Present in Single Strains of Rhizoctonia cerealis, the Pathogen of Wheat Sharp Eyespot.

Rhizoctonia cerealis is the pathogen of wheat sharp eyespot, which occurs throughout temperate wheat-growing regions of the world. In this project, the genomes of viruses from four strains of R. cerealis were analyzed based on Illumina high-throughput transcriptome sequencing (RNA-Seq) data. After filtering out reads that mapped to the fungal genome, viral genomes were assembled. In total, 131 virus-like sequences containing complete open reading frames (ORFs), belonging to 117 viruses, were obtained. Based on phylogenetic analysis, some of them were identified as novel members of the families Curvulaviridae, Endornaviridae, Hypoviridae, Mitoviridae, Mymonaviridae, and Phenuiviridae, while others were unclassified viruses. Most of these viruses from R. cerealis were significantly different from the viruses already reported. We propose the establishment of a new family, Rhizoctobunyaviridae, and two new genera, Rhizoctobunyavirus and Iotahypovirus. We further clarified the distribution and coinfection of these viruses in the four strains. Surprisingly, 39 viral genomes of up to 12 genera were found in strain R1084. Strain R0942, containing the fewest viruses, also contained 21 viral genomes belonging to 10 genera. Based on the RNA-Seq data, we estimated the accumulation level of some viruses in host cells and found that the mitoviruses in R. cerealis generally have very high accumulation. In conclusion, in the culturable phytopathogenic fungus R. cerealis, we discovered a considerable diversity of mycoviruses and a series of novel viruses. This study expands our understanding of the mycoviral diversity in R. cerealis and provides a rich resource for the further use of mycoviruses to control wheat sharp eyespot. IMPORTANCE Rhizoctonia cerealis is a binucleate fungus that is widely distributed worldwide and can cause sharp eyespot disease in cereal crops. In this study, 131 virus-like sequences belonging to 117 viruses were obtained based on analysis of high-throughput RNA-Seq data from four strains of R. cerealis. Many of these viruses were novel members of various virus families, while others were unclassified viruses. As a result, a new family named Rhizoctobunyaviridae and two new genera, Rhizoctobunyavirus and Iotahypovirus, were proposed. Moreover, the discovery of multiple viruses coinfecting a single host and the high accumulation levels of mitoviruses have shed light on the complex interactions between different viruses in a single host. In conclusion, a significant diversity of mycoviruses was discovered in the culturable phytopathogenic fungus R. cerealis. This study expands our understanding of mycoviral diversity, and provides a valuable resource for the further utilization of mycoviruses to control wheat diseases.

Trehalase Inhibitor Validamycin May Have Additional Mechanisms of Toxicology against Rhizoctonia cerealis.

Sharp eyespot is a crucial disease affecting cereal plants, such as bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), and is primarily caused by the pathogenic fungus Rhizoctonia cerealis. As disease severity has increased, it has become imperative to find an effective and reasonable control strategy. One such strategy is the use of the trehalose analog, validamycin, which has been shown to have a potent inhibitory effect on several trehalases found in both insects and fungi, and is widely used as a fungicide in agriculture. In this study, we demonstrated that 0.5 µg/mL validamycin on PDA plates had an inhibitory effect on R. cerealis strain R0301, but had no significant impact on Fusarium graminearum strain PH-1. Except for its inhibiting the trehalase activity of pathogenic fungi, little is known about its mechanism of action. Six trehalase genes were identified in the genome of R. cerealis, including one neutral trehalase and five acidic trehalase genes. Enzyme activity assays indicated that treatment with 5 µg/mL validamycin significantly reduces trehalase activity, providing evidence that validamycin treatment does indeed affect trehalase, even though the expression levels of most trehalase genes, except Rc17406, were not obviously affected. Transcriptome analysis revealed that treatment with validamycin downregulated genes involved in metabolic processes, ribosome biogenesis, and pathogenicity in the R. cerealis. KEGG pathway analysis further showed that validamycin affected genes related to the MAPK signaling pathway, with a significant decrease in ribosome synthesis and assembly. In conclusion, our results indicated that validamycin not only inhibits trehalose activity, but also affects the ribosome synthesis and MAPK pathways of R. cerealis, leading to the suppression of fungal growth and pesticidal effects. This study provides novel insights into the mechanism of action of validamycin.

FgSdhC Paralog Confers Natural Resistance toward SDHI Fungicides in Fusarium graminearum.

Fusarium graminearum exhibited natural resistance to a majority of succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor fungicides (SDHIs) and the molecular mechanisms responsible for the natural resistance were still unknown. Succinate dehydrogenase subunit C (SdhC) is an essential gene for maintaining succinate-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (SQR) function in fungi. In F. graminearum, a paralog of FgSdhC named as FgSdhC1 was identified. Based on RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR assay, we found that the expression level of FgSdhC1 was very low but upregulated by SDHIs treatment. Based on reverse genetics, we demonstrated that FgSdhC1 was an inessential gene in normal growth but was sufficient for maintaining SQR function and conferred natural resistance or reduced sensitivity toward SDHIs. Additionally, we found that the standard F. graminearum isolate PH-1 had high sensitivity to a majority of SDHIs. A single nucleotide variation (C to T) in the FgSdhC1 of isolate PH-1, resulting in a premature termination codon (TAA) replacing the fourth amino acid glutamine (Q), led to the failure of FgSdhC1 to perform functions of conferring nature resistance. These results established that a dispensable paralogous gene determined SDHIs resistance in natural populations of F. graminearum.

The CfMK1 Gene Regulates Reproduction, Appressorium Formation, and Pathogenesis in a Pear Anthracnose-Causing Fungus.

Colletotrichum fructicola, the causal agent of pear anthracnose, causes significant annual economic losses. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are highly conserved signal transduction pathways that play a crucial role in mediating cellular responses to environmental and host signals in plant pathogenic fungi. In this study, we identified an ortholog of the FUS3/KSS1-related MAPK gene, CfMK1, and characterized its function in C. fructicola. The Cfmk1 deletion mutants exhibited poorly developed aerial hyphae, autolysis, no conidial mass or perithecia on solid plates. However, the conidiation of the Cfmk1 mutant in PDB liquid medium was normal compared with that of the wild type (WT). Conidia of the Cfmk1 mutant exhibited a reduced germination rate on glass slides or plant surfaces. The Cfmk1 deletion mutants were unable to form appressoria and lost the capacity to penetrate plant epidermal cells. The ability of the Cfmk1 mutants to infect pear leaves and fruit was severely reduced. Moreover, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of the WT and Cfmk1 mutant was performed, and the results revealed 1886 upregulated and 1554 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the mutant. The DEGs were significantly enriched in cell wall and pathogenesis terms, which was consistent with the defects of the Cfmk1 mutant in cell wall integrity and plant infection. Overall, our data demonstrate that CfMK1 plays critical roles in the regulation of aerial hyphal growth, asexual and sexual reproduction, autolysis, appressorium formation, and pathogenicity.

Substrate Stiffness and Stretch Regulate Profibrotic Mechanosignaling in Pulmonary Arterial Adventitial Fibroblasts.

Pulmonary arterial adventitial fibroblasts (PAAFs) are important regulators of fibrotic vascular remodeling during the progression of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a disease that currently has no effective anti-fibrotic treatments. We conducted in-vitro experiments in PAAFs cultured on hydrogels attached to custom-made equibiaxial stretchers at 10% stretch and substrate stiffnesses representing the mechanical conditions of mild and severe stages of PAH. The expression of collagens α(1)I and α(1)III and elastin messenger RNAs (Col1a1, Col3a1, Eln) were upregulated by increased stretch and substrate stiffness, while lysyl oxidase-like 1 and α-smooth muscle actin messenger RNAs (Loxl1, Acta2) were only significantly upregulated when the cells were grown on matrices with an elevated stiffness representative of mild PAH but not on a stiffness representative of severe PAH. Fibronectin messenger RNA (Fn1) levels were significantly induced by increased substrate stiffness and transiently upregulated by stretch at 4 h, but was not significantly altered by stretch at 24 h. We modified our published computational network model of the signaling pathways that regulate profibrotic gene expression in PAAFs to allow for differential regulation of mechanically-sensitive nodes by stretch and stiffness. When the model was modified so that stiffness activated integrin ß3, the Macrophage Stimulating 1 or 2 (MST1\2) kinases, angiotensin II (Ang II), transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), and syndecan-4, and stretch-regulated integrin ß3, MST1\2, Ang II, and the transient receptor potential (TRP) channel, the model correctly predicted the upregulation of all six genes by increased stiffness and the observed responses to stretch in five out of six genes, although it could not replicate the non-monotonic effects of stiffness on Loxl1 and Acta2 expression. Blocking Ang II Receptor Type 1 (AT1R) with losartan in-vitro uncovered an interaction between the effects of stretch and stiffness and angiotensin-independent activation of Fn1 expression by stretch in PAAFs grown on 3-kPa matrices. This novel combination of in-vitro and in-silico models of PAAF profibrotic cell signaling in response to altered mechanical conditions may help identify regulators of vascular adventitial remodeling due to changes in stretch and matrix stiffness that occur during the progression of PAH in-vivo.

Genome structure and diversity of novel endornaviruses from wheat sharp eyespot pathogen Rhizoctonia cerealis.

Rhizoctonia cerealis (teleomorph Ceratobasidium cereale) is a soil-borne plant pathogenic fungus that can cause sharp eyespot in wheat or yellow patch in grasses. In this study, 21 new endornavirus genomes were obtained from five R. cerealis strains through the high-throughput sequencing of viral double-stranded RNA. Eighteen viruses were identified as Alphaendornavirus, and three viruses were identified as new species of Betaendornavirus on the basis of the phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Notably, 12 of the new alphaendornaviruses could encode two open reading frames (ORFs), which were a rare feature of Endornaviridae. The amino acid sequences encoded by ORF2 from different endornaviruses had very low identity, and their functions and evolution origins remained unclear. Different endornavirus species with remarkably different genome structures could be found in the same R. cerealis strain. This study indicated that endornaviruses are common in R. cerealis and display wide diversity. Betaendornaviruses were found in R. cerealis, and a new species was proposed. This study is the first to report that the endornaviruses from R. cerealis can encode two ORFs and enhances our understanding of the viruses in the Endornaviridae family.

Biocontrol ability and action mechanism of dihydromaltophilin against Colletotrichum fructicola causing anthracnose of pear fruit.

BACKGROUND: Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum fructicola is one of the most important diseases in pear fruit, resulting in huge economic losses. Public awareness of protecting the environment and food safety, together with pathogen resistance to many key fungicides have led to an urgent need to develop alternative strategies for controlling fruit diseases. Here, the antifungal activity of a natural product, dihydromaltophilin [heat-stable antifungal factor (HSAF)], against C. fructicola in vitro and in vivo was investigated to determine its efficacy for anthracnose management. RESULTS: HSAF exhibited pronounced antifungal activity against in vitro mycelial growth of C. fructicola, with a half-inhibition concentration of 0.43 mg L-1 . Hyphae treated with HSAF showed defects such as hyperbranching, swelling and depolarized growth. Conidia germination in the pathogen was inhibited by HSAF in a dose-dependent manner. In the presence of 4 mg L-1 HSAF, conidia germination was significantly delayed, and germ tube growth was inhibited. HSAF at 8 mg L-1 completely blocked conidia germination in C. fructicola. In addition, HSAF disrupted coordination of cytokinesis with growth and nuclear division, induced reactive oxygen species production in conidia, and damaged the integrity of the conidia cell wall. Moreover, an in vivo test confirmed that 50 mg L-1 HSAF significantly reduced the development of anthracnose decay in pear fruit caused by C. fructicola. CONCLUSION: HSAF was highly effective in reducing pear anthracnose caused by C. fructicola and has great potential to become a new type of fruit preservative.

Functional Characterization of Calcineurin-Responsive Transcription Factors Fg01341 and Fg01350 in Fusarium graminearum.

Ca2 +/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase calcineurin is one of the important regulators of intracellular calcium homeostasis and has been investigated extensively in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, only a few reports have explored the function of the Crz1 homolog in filamentous fungi, especially in Fusarium graminearum. In this study, we identified Fg01341 as a potential ortholog of yeast Crz1. Fg01341 could interact with calcineurin and initiate nuclear transport in a calcineurin-dependent manner. The ΔFg01341 mutant exhibited normal hyphal growth on basic medium and conidia formation, but sexual reproduction was partially blocked. Pathogenicity assays showed that the virulence of the ΔFg01341 mutant in flowering wheat heads and corn silks dramatically decreased and was thus consistent with the reduction in deoxynivalenol production. Unexpectedly, the sensitivity to osmotic stress of the deletion mutant and that of the wild-type strain did not present any differences. The deletion mutant showed higher sensitivity to tebuconazole than the wild-type strain. Results also showed that the transcription factor Fg01350 might be the calcineurin target and was independent of Crz1. Furthermore, ΔFg01350 showed defects in hyphal growth, sexual production, virulence, and deoxynivalenol production. Collectively, the results indicate that these two proteins functionally redundant and that the calcineurin-Crz1-independent pathway is particularly important in F. graminearum.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of SRO gene family in wheat: Molecular evolution and expression profiles during different stresses.

SRO (SIMILAR TO RCD ONE), a type of plant-specific small protein family, play important roles in plant growth and development, as well as in response to biotic/abiotic stresses. Although characterization of SROs have been performed in model plants, little is known about their function in wheat, especially under stress conditions. In this study, 30 SRO genes were identified from the wheat genome (TaSRO). They were phylogenetically separated into two groups with distinct structures. The cis-regulatory elements in the promoter region of TaSROs were analyzed and numerous elements functionally associated with stress responding and hormones were interpreted, implying the reason for induction expression patterns of TaSROs during abiotic and biotic stresses in wheat. Whole-genome replication events in the SRO gene family of wheat and seven other species (Arabidopsis thaliana, rice, maize, barley, soybean, upland cotton, and cucumber) were analyzed, resulting in 1, 12, 9, 23, 6, 5, and 3 of gene pairs, respectively. The tissue-specific expression pattern profiling revealed that most TaSROs are highly expressed in one or more tissues and may play an important role in wheat growth and development. In addition, qRT-PCR results further confirmed that these TaSRO genes are involved in wheat stress response. In summary, our study laid a theoretical basis for molecular function deciphering of TaSROs, especially in plant hormones and biotic/abiotic stress responses.