The risks of artificial intelligence: A narrative review and ethical reflection from an Oral Medicine group.

As a relatively new tool, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in medicine and dentistry has the potential to significantly transform the healthcare sector. AI has already demonstrated efficacy in medical diagnosis across several specialties, used successfully to detect breast, lung and skin cancer. In Oral Medicine, AI may be applied in a similar fashion, used in the detection and diagnosis of oral cancers and oral potentially malignant diseases. Despite its promise as a transformative diagnostic aid, the use of AI in healthcare presents significant safety, reliability and ethical concerns. There is no formal consensus on the safe and ethical implementation of AI systems in healthcare settings, but the literature converges on several key principles of ethical AI use including transparency, justice and fairness, non-maleficence, responsibility and privacy. This article provides a narrative review of the key ethical issues surrounding AI use in medicine, and reflects on these, providing view-points of a bioethicist and Oral Medicine clinicians from several units.

World Workshop on Oral Medicine VII: Oral adverse effects to biologic agents in patients with inflammatory disorders. A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Biologic agents are rapidly emerging as an effective therapy to treat autoimmune and other chronic diseases. The use of these agents is poorly characterized, resulting in a lack of guidance for dental practitioners. Case reports of oral adverse events have begun to emerge. However, their scope and frequency have not been summarized and analysed to date. The objective of this review was to characterize the literature on oral adverse effects associated with biological therapy when used for autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. METHODS: This review was developed in accordance with scoping review recommendations. Search strategies were developed and employed for six databases. Studies were selected using a systematic search process but with broad inclusion of study types given the paucity of information available. Reports of oral adverse events were analysed descriptively according to agent, mechanism of action, underlying disease, and oral adverse effect observed. RESULTS: Our search returned 2080 articles and 51 met our inclusion criteria, of which most were case reports. The most frequent adverse effects included angioedema, oral lichenoid lesions, osteonecrosis of the jaw, and oral infections. There were also cases of oral malignancies associated with use of biologic agents. Less common effects such as pigmentation were also described. CONCLUSIONS: Oral adverse events have been reported in patients on biologic therapy, albeit in small numbers to date. This limits the generalizability of these results, which should not be used to generate a clinical guideline as they are based primarily on case reports. However, this study presents the first review characterizing the adverse effects observed. Large multi-center studies will be necessary to further define the oral and dental complications caused by biologic agents.

WWOM VII: Effectiveness of topical interventions in the management of burning mouth syndrome: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the effectiveness of topical interventions in the management of burning mouth syndrome (BMS), based on the core outcome domains recommended by the Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT). METHODS: A systematic literature review of RCTs on topical interventions for the management of BMS, published in PubMed, Web of Science, PsycInfo, Cochrane Database/Central, and Google Scholar through May 2021 was performed. RESULTS: Eight RCTs (n = 358 study participants) were included in this study. Due to underreporting of IMMPACT domains, publication bias, high degree of heterogeneity between studies, meta-analysis was not undertaken. Based on changes in visual analogue pain scores (ΔVAS), the most reported outcome, the effectiveness of the topical interventions was demonstrated; however, it is low level of evidence. CONCLUSIONS: High levels of variability (interventions, outcomes, outcome measurement tools, and intervention effects evaluated), heterogeneity, publication bias, and underreporting of IMMPACT domains were observed across the RCTs. This systematic review highlights the need for application of standardized outcome measures to future RCTs. At the present time, there is lack of moderate-strong evidence on short- and long-term outcomes to support or refute the use of any particular topical intervention in managing BMS. Future RCTs with standardized outcome measures are needed.

WWOM VII: Effectiveness of systemic pharmacotherapeutic interventions in the management of BMS: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effectiveness of systemic pharmacotherapeutic interventions compared to placebo in burning mouth syndrome (BMS) randomized controlled trials (RCTs) based on the core outcome domains recommended by the Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT). METHODS: A systematic literature review of RCTs, concerning systemic pharmacotherapeutic interventions for BMS, published from January 1994 through October 2019, and meta-analysis was performed. RESULTS: Fourteen RCTs (n = 734 participants) were included. Of those, nine were eligible for the quantitative assessment due to the availability/homogeneity of data for at least one of the IMMPACT domains. Pain intensity was the only domain reported in all RCTs. Weighted mean changes in pain intensity, based on visual analogue scale (ΔVAS), were reported in three RCTs at 6 ± 2 weeks and only one RCT at 10+ weeks follow-ups. Quantitative assessment, based on ΔVAS, yielded very low evidence for the effectiveness of alpha-lipoic acid and clonazepam, low evidence for effectiveness of trazodone and melatonin, and moderate evidence for herbal compounds. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the RCTs studied, variable levels of evidence exist that suggest that select pharmacological interventions are associated with improved symptoms. However, the underreporting of IMMPACT domains in BMS RCTs restricts the multidimensional assessment of systemic interventions outcomes. Standardized outcome measures need to be applied to future RCTs to improve understanding of intervention outcomes.

Oral potentially malignant disorders - An assessment of knowledge and attitude to future education in undergraduate dental students.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge and clinical experience of oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMDs) in undergraduate dental students in six European countries (Croatia, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain and United Kingdom) and assess student's attitude and preference to future education on the topic. A secondary aim was to identify gaps in student's knowledge and clinical practice. The study was a part of the Erasmus+ project "Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders: Healthcare Professionals Training" (Grant No: 2020-1-UK01-KA202-078917). MATERIALS AND METHODS: An online questionnaire was distributed to all final-year students in six partner universities. This consisted of four parts assessing: (1) knowledge on OPMDs, (2) clinical experience with this group of patients, (3) self-rated competence in the management of OPMDs and (4) preferences with regard to future education. RESULTS: Two hundred and sixty final-year dental students from six partner universities responded to the questionnaire. Response rates varied from 12% to 92% between partner universities. Significant differences in clinical experience and knowledge were found between students. Students with more clinical exposure to OPMDs rated their knowledge and competence in the management of OPMDs higher than students with less clinical experience. The majority of students were interested in future education on OPMDs, preferably via short educational videos. CONCLUSION: The majority of students have received theoretical knowledge of OPMDs during their undergraduate studies, however, not all had clinical exposure to this group of patients. Students were open to further education on OPMDs. Important deficiencies in knowledge were identified that need to be addressed and it is anticipated that the e-learning platform and e-book that are in development by partner institutions will help to improve overall knowledge of OPMDs.

Patient experience of virtual consultations in Oral Medicine during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a rapid shift to the use of virtual consultations in both primary and secondary care. The aim of this study was to assess patient experience of virtual consultations (telephone and video) in the Oral Medicine department during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A validated survey was developed with the Patient Experience Team in Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust. A combination of previously validated questions and newly validated psychometric questions were used to design the patient feedback questionnaire. The survey was administered to all patients following their virtual (telephone or video) consultation. Data were synthesised and electronically analysed. Qualitative data were thematically analysed. RESULTS: A total of 115 surveys were completed. Over 82% rated their experience as good or very good and 69% preferred a virtual consultation for their next consultation. Thematic analysis of individual comments identified positive themes including convenience and positive/helpful clinical experience. Areas for development identified from thematic analysis included accessibility and clinical limitations in not undertaking a physical examination. CONCLUSION: Overall, the patient experience of virtual consultations in Oral Medicine was positive.

Eosinophilic sialodochitis: An emerging atopic condition.

OBJECTIVE: To report the clinical characteristics of the largest single centre cohort of patients with eosinophilic sialodochitis. METHODS: Analysis of data relating to 37 patients seen in a dedicated multidisciplinary clinic was performed. Demographic, clinical, haematological, cytological, histological and radiological features were collated. Response to trials of allergy treatment was assessed. RESULTS: Thirty-seven patients (30 female, seven male) were identified, 42% of whom were of Afro-Caribbean origin, with a mean age of 50.4 years (range 28-80 years). Mean symptom duration at presentation was 10 years (range 2-33 years). Parotid and submandibular gland involvement was equally reported. The most commonly reported symptoms were swelling (97%), itching of the overlying skin (92%), salivary gland discomfort (84%) and "string-like" mucus discharge from salivary duct orifices (76%). Twenty-three patients (62%) demonstrated atopic disease and serum IgE level elevated in 57%. All 37 patients had eosinophils present in aspirated duct contents samples while raised peripheral eosinophil count was seen in 41%. Anecdotal symptom improvement was reported with antihistamine, antileukotriene or steroid treatment. CONCLUSION: Eosinophilic sialodochitis should be considered in any patient presenting with recurrent salivary gland swelling. Further studies are needed to evaluate treatments directed at a likely allergic pathogenesis.

Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis due to gain-of-function mutation in STAT1.

Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC) is a heterogenous group of primary immunodeficiency diseases characterised by susceptibility to chronic or recurrent superficial Candida infection of skin, nails and mucous membranes. Gain-of-function mutations in the STAT1 gene (STAT1-GOF) are the most common genetic aetiology for CMC, and mutation analysis should be considered. These mutations lead to defective responses in Type 1 and Type 17 helper T cells (Th1 and Th17), which, depending on the mutation, also predispose to infection with Staphylococci, Mycobacteria and Herpesviridae. We describe the clinical and genetic findings for three patients with CMC due to gain-of-function mutations in the STAT1 gene.

World Workshop on Oral Medicine VII: Immunobiologics for salivary gland disease in Sjögren's syndrome: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review evaluated the efficacy of immunobiologics for the management of oral disease in Sjögren's syndrome (SS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: MEDLINE® , Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library were searched for evidence on the use of immunobiologics for management of glandular disease in SS. Primary outcomes were xerostomia and salivary gland dysfunction, assessed via visual analogue scales, disease-specific scales for SS, measurement of salivary flow, ultrasound data, and quality of life measures. RESULTS: Seventeen studies (11 randomized controlled trials and 6 observational studies) met inclusion criteria. Rituximab showed efficacy in improving salivary gland function but not xerostomia. Abatacept showed promise in improving both xerostomia and salivary flow. Belimumab exhibited long-term improvement of salivary flow and subjective measures. The novel agent CFZ533 improved both disease activity and patient-reported indexes. CONCLUSIONS: There is strong evidence pointing to the efficacy of rituximab in the management of oral disease in SS. Future controlled trials may elucidate the efficacy of belimumab and abatacept. The new drug CFZ533 is a promising alternative for the management of SS and its salivary gland involvement. In considering these agents, the promise of efficacy must be balanced against the harmful effects associated with biologic agents.

World Workshop of Oral Medicine VII: A systematic review of immunobiologic therapy for oral manifestations of pemphigoid and pemphigus.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the evidence for treatment of oral involvement of pemphigus and pemphigoid with biologics. STUDY DESIGN: This systematic review used a comprehensive search strategy to identify literature describing oral involvement of pemphigus or pemphigoid treated with a biologic agent. The primary outcome measures were efficacy and safety of biologic therapy. RESULTS: Inclusion criteria were met by 154 studies including over 1200 patients. Treatment of pemphigus with a total of 11 unique biologic agents and 3 unique combinations of agents is reported. Five randomized controlled trials (RCT) were included in the final analysis that investigated infliximab, IVIg, rituximab, and autologous platelet-rich plasma therapy for pemphigus vulgaris. Three non-RCT studies reported on successful rituximab or IVIg therapy for mucous membrane pemphigoid. Studies demonstrated considerable heterogeneity in agent, methods, and quality. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence clearly describing oral tissue response to biologic therapy is sparse. Two RCTs support use of rituximab, one supports use of IVIg, and one pilot study suggests intralesional injection of autologous platelet-rich plasma aids healing of oral PV lesions. As oral lesions of pemphigus and pemphigoid can be refractory to systemic therapy, drug trials including biologic therapies should document details regarding response of the oral lesions to therapy.

Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Weight loss is recommended for overweight or obese patients with type 2 diabetes on the basis of short-term studies, but long-term effects on cardiovascular disease remain unknown. We examined whether an intensive lifestyle intervention for weight loss would decrease cardiovascular morbidity and mortality among such patients. METHODS: In 16 study centers in the United States, we randomly assigned 5145 overweight or obese patients with type 2 diabetes to participate in an intensive lifestyle intervention that promoted weight loss through decreased caloric intake and increased physical activity (intervention group) or to receive diabetes support and education (control group). The primary outcome was a composite of death from cardiovascular causes, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, or hospitalization for angina during a maximum follow-up of 13.5 years. RESULTS: The trial was stopped early on the basis of a futility analysis when the median follow-up was 9.6 years. Weight loss was greater in the intervention group than in the control group throughout the study (8.6% vs. 0.7% at 1 year; 6.0% vs. 3.5% at study end). The intensive lifestyle intervention also produced greater reductions in glycated hemoglobin and greater initial improvements in fitness and all cardiovascular risk factors, except for low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol levels. The primary outcome occurred in 403 patients in the intervention group and in 418 in the control group (1.83 and 1.92 events per 100 person-years, respectively; hazard ratio in the intervention group, 0.95; 95% confidence interval, 0.83 to 1.09; P=0.51). CONCLUSIONS: An intensive lifestyle intervention focusing on weight loss did not reduce the rate of cardiovascular events in overweight or obese adults with type 2 diabetes. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and others; Look AHEAD ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00017953.).

Oral and vulval disease: Prevalence, associations, and management recommendations for the oral medicine clinician.

OBJECTIVE: The oral cavity is a common site for mucosal conditions which may be confined to the mouth, or may manifest as mucocutaneous involvement at other sites, including the anogenital region. This retrospective analysis aimed to assess the appropriateness of oral medicine referrals to a specialized vulval clinic and review the prevalence of oral disease associated with vulval involvement of the same condition. STUDY DESIGN: One hundred thirty-six patients referred from oral medicine to the vulval service at Guy's Hospital were analyzed. Retrospective data collated included: reason(s) for referral, onset of oral and genital symptoms, oral diagnosis, vulval diagnosis, correlation between the oral and vulval diagnosis, and discharge at first appointment. RESULTS: Forty-nine percent (n = 67) of the patients had oral and vulval manifestations of the same disease. The majority of these patients (n = 63) were diagnosed with vulval lichen planus, of whom 61 had concomitant oral lichen planus involvement (97%). Other associated oral and vulval diseases included aphthous ulceration, Behçet's disease, dryness secondary to Sjögren's disease, Crohn's disease, and mucous membrane pemphigoid. The remaining 51% (n = 69) of the patients presented with independent vulval conditions unrelated to their oral disease. CONCLUSION: Clinicians should recognize the association between genital symptoms and oral disease and refer to specialist allied services, as appropriate. (Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol YEAR;VOL:page range).

Fixed drug eruption secondary to etoricoxib.

Fixed drug eruptions (FDE) are adverse cutaneous drug reactions and a form of delayed type 4 hypersensitivity reaction characterised by recurrent lesions at the same site each time a specific drug is taken. They most commonly result in cutaneous lesions presenting as an erythematous round or oval macule or plaque. FDEs have rarely been reported to affect oral mucous membranes and tend to have a bullous or aphthous-like appearance with erythema. Almost half of patients report an increase in the severity of symptoms with prolonged exposure to the offending medication. The most commonly attributed classes of drug are antibiotics (tetracyclines and sulphonamides) alongside non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Cutaneous adverse reactions to etoricoxib, a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor, have been reported. Here we describe an adverse reaction restricted to the oral mucosa.

Oral dysaesthesia: a special focus on aetiopathogenesis, clinical diagnostics and treatment modalities.

Oral dysaesthesia is a condition characterised by persistent alteration to oral sensation, perceived by the patient to be abnormal and/or unpleasant, in the absence of any mucosal pathology. The condition can be difficult to detect and diagnose. A possible peripheral or central neuropathic aetiology has been proposed. Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is the most common idiopathic oral dysesthesia in which long-term suffering is often reported by patients. Recent efforts from professional organisations and study groups have provided a consensus on BMS disease definition and diagnostic criteria. Large-scale epidemiological studies are required to provide an accurate estimate for prevalence and incidence of the condition. Meticulous diagnostic investigations which may require interdisciplinary teamwork are often warranted to reach an accurate diagnosis. A combination of interventional modalities, with a holistic approach, is key for successful management and improvement in patients' quality of life.

Pembrolizumab related osteonecrosis of the jaw.

Medication related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ) is a serious complication with potential implications on patients' ongoing medical care. This case report describes a case of MRONJ from pembrolizumab; a novel immune checkpoint inhibitor drug.

Management of orofacial granulomatosis.

Orofacial granulomatosis is a chronic relapsing-remitting inflammatory condition that shares a similar phenotypic presentation to some other granulomatous diseases, particularly Crohn's disease. However, subtle clinical and pathological differences justify it as a separate disease entity. Previous studies have assessed the effectiveness of interventions used in the management of orofacial granulomatosis. This article reviews the management options available. A literature search was conducted to identify studies, in English, which assessed the effect of non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions in the treatment of orofacial granulomatosis. The interventions were categorised into dietary modification, pharmacological (topical, intralesional and systemic therapy), surgery and psychological. A combination of interventions is often required to effectively manage each patient. There is convincing evidence that diet plays a role in disease severity. In patients where dietary manipulation alone is unsuccessful, topical, intralesional and/or systemic treatment may be considered to manage the condition.

Malignant Transformation Rate of Oral Submucous Fibrosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic progressive condition affecting the oral cavity, oropharynx and upper third of the oesophagus. It is a potentially malignant disorder. The authors collated and analysed the existing literature to establish the overall malignant transformation rate (MTR). A retrospective analysis of medical and dental scientific literature using online indexed databases was conducted for the period 1956 to 2021. The quality of the enrolled studies was assessed by the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). A meta-analysis using a random effects model of a single proportion was performed along with statistical tests for heterogeneity. The overall proportion of malignancy across all studies was 0.06 (95% CI, 0.02-0.10), indicating an overall 6% risk of malignant transformation across all studies and cohorts. Sub-group analyses revealed strong differences in proportion of malignancy according to ethnicity/cohort; Chinese = 0.02 (95% CI 0.01-0.02), Taiwanese = 0.06 (95% CI, 0.03-0.10), Indian = 0.08 (95% CI, 0.03-0.14) and Pakistani = 0.27 (95% CI 0.25-0.29). Overall, the MTR was 6%; however, wide heterogeneity of the included studies was noted. Geographic variations in MTR were noted but were not statistically significant. Further studies are required to analyse the difference between cohort groups.

An audit comparing the discrepancies between a verbal enquiry, a written history, and an electronic medical history questionnaire: a suggested medical history/social history form for clinical practice.

UNLABELLED: In everyday practice, dentists are confronted with an increasing number of patients with complex medical problems. There is divergence of opinion among dentists regarding how to obtain a thorough medical/social history. PURPOSE: The objective of this audit is to produce a standardised medical history in order to identify the medically compromised patient attending the general dental practitioner. At present in the Dublin Dental School and Hospital, there are three different methods: a verbal enquiry, and a written or an electronic questionnaire. This study was undertaken to identify any differences or discrepancies between each of the three methods in eliciting the medical history, and to determine whether one method was superior to the others. The results are used to recommend the most accurate method for obtaining a thorough health history for practitioners, both in a hospital and a general practice setting. METHOD: One hundred and fifty charts within the Dublin Dental School and Hospital of all new patients at a randomly chosen clinic were selected and then audited: 50 charts from the oral and maxillofacial surgery assessment clinics (written pro forma questionnaire), 50 from the oral medicine clinic (consultant verbal enquiry), and 50 from A&E (electronic questionnaire) were compared to determine if an adequate medical history was taken, and to detect differences and discrepancies in patients' medical histories. The records pertained to 91 females and 59 males. The age distribution was 5-87 years for females and 3-85 years for males. The mean age was 45 years for females and 42 years for males. RESULTS: The written patient-administered pro forma questionnaire, combined with verbal verification by the clinician/consultant, proved to be the most useful and consistent method for detecting medical problems in dental patients. The consultant verbal enquiry alone showed more inconsistency than the other two methods. Based on these results, a modified questionnaire for use within all departments in the Dental Hospital has been proposed. This may also be suitable for use by general dental practitioners in their practice setting. CONCLUSION: It is incumbent on the clinician/dentist to evaluate each patient's general health prior to delivering treatment in order to avoid unnecessary and preventable complications. The use of written patient-administered pro forma questionnaires is beneficial but must be verified by the examining clinician/dentist and assessed at each new visit (6-12 monthly) to be contemporaneous.