Identifying the social and environmental determinants of plague endemicity in Peru: insights from a case study in Ascope, La Libertad.

BACKGROUND: Plague remains a public health problem in specific areas located in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru. Its prevention and control encompasses adequate clinical management and timely laboratory diagnosis. However, understanding communities' interaction with its surrounding ecosystem as well as the differences between community members and institutional stakeholders regarding the root causes of plague might contribute to understand its endemicity. We aim at bridging the traditionally separate biological and social sciences by elucidating communities' risk perception and identifying knowledge gaps between communities and stakeholders. This approach has been used in other areas but never in understanding plague endemicity, nor applied in the Latin American plague context. The objectives were to identify (i) plague risk perception at community level, (ii) perceived social and environmental determinants of plague endemicity, and (iii) institutions that need to be involved and actions needed to be taken as proposed by stakeholders and community members. The study was performed in 2015 and took place in Ascope rural province, La Libertad Region, in Peru, where the study areas are surrounded by intensive private sugarcane production. METHODS: We propose using a multi-level discourse analysis. Community households were randomly selected (n = 68). Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were applied. A stakeholder analysis was used to identify policy makers (n = 34). In-depth interviews were performed, recorded and transcribed. Descriptive variables were analyzed with SPSS®. Answers were coded following variables adapted from the Commission on Social Determinants of Health and analyzed with the assistance of ATLAS.ti®. RESULTS: Results showed that risk perception was low within the community. Policy-makers identified agriculture and sugarcane production as the root cause while community answers ranked the hygiene situation as the main cause. Stakeholders first ranked governmental sectors (education, housing, agriculture and transport) and the community prioritized the health sector. Social surveillance and improving prevention and control were first cited by policy-makers and community members, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The determinants of plague endemicity identified by the two groups differed. Similarly, actions and sectors needed to be involved in solving the problem varied. The gaps in understanding plague root causes between these two groups might hinder the efficiency of current plague prevention and control strategies.

A qualitative socio-ecological characterization of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market, La Libertad, Peru.

OBJECTIVE: To identify 1) the main determinants of persistent Yersinia pestis circulation and the associated threat of plague at Hermelinda Market-a large farmers' market in the city of Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru-and the main actions taken against it, as perceived by local stakeholders; 2) the level of plague risk perception among local actors; and 3) recommended actions to solve the plague threat at the market. METHODS: A conceptual framework was developed combining a social determinants approach with a complex systems-thinking framework and a knowledge management perspective. A four-step qualitative protocol was carried out (literature review; stakeholder mapping; 37 semi-structured interviews; and coding/analysis). In the fourth step, the data collected in the semi-structured interviews were coded for eight social determinants of health (SDH) variables and analyzed with ATLAS.ti®, and an emerging category analysis was performed to identify risk perception levels. RESULTS: Based on analysis by SDH variable, the three main determinants of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market were: 1) local (Trujillo City) governance, 2) infrastructure and basic services, and 3) local culture. According to the same analysis, actions most frequently undertaken against plague involved 1) infrastructure and basic services, 2) social vigilance, and 3) communication. The emerging category analysis indicated local risk perception levels were low, with most of the data pointing to "unhygienic" ("naturalized") lifestyles and a general lack of awareness about the disease prior to plague-related health concerns at the market as the cause. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the persistent circulation of Yersinia pestis at Hermelinda Market is not simply a technical matter but more of a managerial and cultural problem. As local governance was found to be a main factor in the persistence of this public health threat, future efforts against it should focus on sustainable inter-sectoral planning and education. Actions taken exclusively by the health sector and the improvement of infrastructure and basic services alone will not be enough to reduce the threat of plague at the market.

A qualitative socio-ecological characterization of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market, La Libertad, Peru / Caracterización socioecológica cualitativa de la amenaza de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda, Departamento de La Libertad Perú / Caracterização socioecológica qualitativa do risco de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda, La Libertad, Peru

Objective To identify 1) the main determinants of persistent Yersinia pestis circulation and the associated threat of plague at Hermelinda Market—a large farmers' market in the city of Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru—and the main actions taken against it, as perceived by local stakeholders; 2) the level of plague risk perception among local actors; and 3) recommended actions to solve the plague threat at the market. Methods A conceptual framework was developed combining a social determinants approach with a complex systems-thinking framework and a knowledge management perspective. A four-step qualitative protocol was carried out (literature review; stakeholder mapping; 37 semi-structured interviews; and coding/analysis). In the fourth step, the data collected in the semi-structured interviews were coded for eight social determinants of health (SDH) variables and analyzed with ATLAS.ti®, and an emerging category analysis was performed to identify risk perception levels. Results Based on analysis by SDH variable, the three main determinants of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market were: 1) local (Trujillo City) governance, 2) infrastructure and basic services, and 3) local culture. According to the same analysis, actions most frequently undertaken against plague involved 1) infrastructure and basic services, 2) social vigilance, and 3) communication. The emerging category analysis indicated local risk perception levels were low, with most of the data pointing to "unhygienic" ("naturalized") lifestyles and a general lack of awareness about the disease prior to plague-related health concerns at the market as the cause. Conclusions The results indicate that the persistent circulation of Yersinia pestis at Hermelinda Market is not simply a technical matter but more of a managerial and cultural problem. As local governance was found to be a main factor in the persistence of this public health threat, future efforts against it should focus on sustainable inter-sectoral planning and education. Actions taken exclusively by the health sector and the improvement of infrastructure and basic services alone will not be enough to reduce the threat of plague at the market.

RESUMEN Objetivo Establecer: 1) los principales determinantes de la circulación persistente de Yersinia pestis y la amenaza asociada de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda, un gran mercado de agricultores en la ciudad de Trujillo, Departamento de La Libertad en Perú, y las medidas más adecuadas para combatir la bacteria, según la percepción de los interesados directos locales; 2) el grado de percepción del riesgo de peste entre los actores locales; y 3) las medidas recomendadas para resolver la amenaza de peste en el mercado. Métodos Se elaboró un marco conceptual que combinaba un enfoque de determinantes sociales con un complejo marco de pensamiento sistémico y una perspectiva de gestión del conocimiento. Se llevó a cabo un protocolo cualitativo de cuatro pasos (revisión bibliográfica; mapeo de interesados directos; 37 entrevistas semiestructuradas y codificación y análisis). En el cuarto paso, los datos recopilados en las entrevistas semiestructuradas fueron codificados conforme a ocho variables de los determinantes sociales de la salud y analizados con el programa ATLAS.ti ®, y luego se realizó un análisis de las categorías emergentes para establecer los grados de percepción del riesgo. Resultados Sobre la base del análisis de las variables de los determinantes sociales de la salud, los tres principales determinantes de la amenaza de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda fueron: 1) la gobernanza local (Ciudad de Trujillo), 2) la infraestructura y los servicios básicos y 3) la cultura local. Según el mismo análisis, las acciones emprendidas con mayor frecuencia contra la peste se vincularon con 1) la infraestructura y los servicios básicos, 2) la vigilancia social y 3) la comunicación. El análisis de las categorías emergentes indicó que los grados locales de percepción del riesgo fueron bajos y la mayoría de los datos apuntaron como causas a los modos de vida "antihigiénicos" ("naturalizados") y a una falta general de concientización acerca de la enfermedad antes de la preocupación acerca de la salud relacionada con la peste en el mercado. Conclusiones Los resultados indican que la circulación persistente de Yersinia pestis en el mercado La Hermelinda no es sencillamente un asunto técnico sino sobre todo un problema cultural y de gestión. Como se encontró que la gobernanza local era un factor importante en la persistencia de esta amenaza a la salud pública, las actividades futuras para combatirla deben centrarse en la planificación y la educación intersectoriales sostenibles. Las medidas adoptadas exclusivamente por el sector de la salud y el mejoramiento de la infraestructura y los servicios básicos por sí solos no serán suficientes para reducir la amenaza de la peste en el mercado.

RESUMO Objetivo Identificar 1) os principais determinantes da circulação persistente de Yersinia pestis e o risco associado de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda, um grande mercado de produtos agrícolas no município de Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru, e as principais medidas adotadas para enfrentar esta situação, segundo a percepção dos interessados diretos locais, 2) o nível de percepção do risco de ocorrência da peste entre os atores locais e 3) as ações recomendadas para eliminar o risco de ocorrência da peste no mercado. Métodos Foi desenvolvida uma estrutura conceitual formada pela combinação de um enfoque de determinantes sociais, um enquadramento complexo de reflexão sistêmica e uma perspectiva de gestão do conhecimento. Foi conduzido um protocolo qualitativo de quatro etapas (revisão literária, mapeamento de interessados diretos, 37 entrevistas semiestruturadas e codificação/análise). Na quarta etapa, os dados coletados nas entrevistas semiestruturadas foram codificados para oito variáveis de determinantes sociais da saúde (DSS) e analisados com o programa ATLAS.ti®. Uma análise de categorias emergentes foi realizada para identificar os níveis de percepção de risco. Resultados A partir da análise segundo as variáveis de DSS, os três principais determinantes do risco de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda foram: 1) governança local (município de Trujillo), 2) infraestrutura e serviços básicos e 3) cultura local. Segundo a mesma análise, as medidas adotadas com maior frequência para evitar a peste foram: 1) infraestrutura e serviços básicos, 2) vigilância social e 3) comunicação. A análise de categorias emergentes indicou que o nível de percepção local do risco de ocorrência era baixo, sendo que a maioria dos dados apontou como causa hábitos de vida anti-higiênicos ("naturalizados") e falta geral de consciência da doença anterior às preocupações de saúde relacionadas com a peste no mercado. Conclusões Os resultados do estudo indicam que a circulação persistente de Yersinia pestis no Mercado Hermelinda não é simplesmente uma questão técnica, sendo mais um problema administrativo e cultural. Verificou-se que a governança local é um dos principais fatores para a persistência desta ameaça à saúde pública e os esforços futuros devem visar o planejamento intersetorial sustentável e a educação. Medidas adotadas exclusivamente pelo setor da saúde e a melhoria da infraestrutura e serviços básicos por si só não serão suficientes para reduzir o risco de ocorrência da peste no mercado.