Plasma pharmacokinetics, pulmonary disposition, and safety of subcutaneous gamithromycin in alpacas.

The study objective was to determine the disposition of gamithromycin in plasma, peripheral blood polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs), pulmonary epithelial lining fluid (PELF), and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells in alpacas. A single subcutaneous injection of gamithromycin (6.6 mg/kg) was administered to six healthy adult alpacas. At various time points after administration, gamithromycin concentrations were analyzed via LC-MS/MS in plasma, PMNs, PELF, and BAL cells until Day 14 post-injection. Plasma gamithromycin concentrations were measured in all six alpacas; the remaining three body compartments were analyzed in four alpacas. Gamithromycin rapidly concentrated in blood PMNs, BAL cells, and PELF. Shorter Tmax , and lower Cmax, and AUC were observed in plasma than in the other three compartments. Cmax was highest in BAL cells (26001.80 ± 12400.00 ng/ml) and PMNs (2573.00 ± 963.30 ng/ml) compared to PELF (660.80 ± 413.70 ng/ml) and plasma (452.30 ± 196.20 ng/ml). Mean terminal half-lives were 72.60 ± 14.10 h in plasma, 56.60 ± 10.60 h in PELF, 62.80 ± 85.30 h in PMNs, and 93.60 ± 124.80 h in BAL cells. No injection site reactions occurred. One alpaca developed colic but no other adverse reactions were noted. Overall, gamithromycin was highly concentrated in white blood cells and pulmonary fluids/cells. Clinical utilization of gamithromycin in alpacas should be done with caution until further investigation of potential for colic.

Esthesiometric evaluation of corneal analgesia after topical application of 1% morphine sulfate in normal horses.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether topical ocular application of 1% morphine sulfate would change corneal sensitivity and to identify the duration of action. ANIMAL STUDIED: Eight healthy adult horses. PROCEDURE: Corneal touch threshold (CTT) was measured in the center of one randomly selected eye of each horse by Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer (Luneau Cochet-Bonnet Esthesiometer; Western Ophthalmics, Lynnwood, WA, USA). Immediately following baseline CTT measurement, 0.3 ml of 1.0% preservative-free morphine sulfate (Morphine Sulfate 25 mg/ml Preservative-free; Hospira, Lake Forest, IL, USA) (3 mg) was applied to the tested eye. The same volume of artificial tear (LiquiTears; Major Pharmacauticals, Livonia, MI, USA) solution was then applied to the control eye following acquisition of baseline CTT. Corneal touch threshold was then subsequently measured at 1 min after medication application, followed by every 5 min until 60 min post administration. If the corneal touch threshold had not returned to baseline by 60 min, measurements were continued at 15-min intervals until corneal sensitivity returned to baseline CTT measurement up to 180 min post administration if needed. The control eye was treated identically and measurements on the control eye stopped when the corresponding treated eye returned to baseline. RESULTS: Mean baseline CTT of both eyes was 21.8 mm with an identical range of 15-30 mm. Mean corneal touch threshold was not statistically different between morphine-treated and control eyes (P = 0.22). There was a large degree of inter- and intrasubject variation in the CTT measurements obtained. All but three horses were considered to be at baseline values by 60 min. CONCLUSIONS: Topical ophthalmic 1% morphine sulfate did not have a clinically significant analgesic effect on the corneal touch threshold of intact healthy equine corneas.

Pharmacokinetic evaluation and safety of topical 1% morphine sulfate application on the healthy equine eye.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if corneal epithelial cell integrity is detrimentally affected by short-term administration of 1.0% morphine sulfate. Additionally, we sought to determine if topical 1.0% morphine applied to the equine cornea would result in ocular or systemic absorption. ANIMAL STUDIED: Six healthy horses. PROCEDURE: Morphine sulfate (1.0%) was applied topically to one eye every four hours for 72 h before horses were euthanized. Serum samples were collected at varying time points during the study and aqueous and vitreous humor were collected immediately after euthanasia. Morphine quantification in serum, aqueous, and vitreous humor was performed by ELISA. Treated and control corneas were submitted for histopathology. Horses were monitored for adverse ocular and systemic effects throughout the study period. RESULTS: All horses developed mild mucoid ocular discharge in the treated eye. One horse developed a fever during treatment. Morphine was detected in the aqueous humor of the treated eye for all horses with mean ± standard deviation of 165.18 ng/mL ± 87.69 ng/mL. Morphine was detected in vitreous humor of the treated eye of 5 of 6 horses with mean ± standard deviation of 4.87 ± 4.46 ng/mL. Morphine was detected in the serum of 5 of 6 horses at varying time points. Maximum systemic concentration reached in a single horse was 6.98 ng/mL. Corneal histopathology revealed no difference in microscopic appearance between morphine-treated and control corneas. CONCLUSIONS: Topical administration of 1.0% morphine sulfate did not appear to cause any significant ocular or systemic adverse effects. Topical ophthalmic morphine application resulted in both ocular and systemic absorption.

Morphine Synovial Fluid Concentrations After Intravenous Regional Limb Perfusion in Standing Horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine synovial concentrations of morphine after intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP) with morphine or morphine in combination with gentamicin in clinically healthy, standing sedated horses. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental. ANIMALS: Adult horses (n = 6). METHODS: IVRLP was performed using 0.1 mg/kg morphine (M) in standing sedated horses. After a 3-week washout period, IVRLP was performed on the same forelimb with a combination of 0.1 mg/kg morphine and 1 g gentamicin (M/G). Synovial fluid from the middle carpal joint of the perfused limb and jugular blood samples were collected immediately before each perfusion and 20 minutes, and 2, 8, and 24 hours after IVRLP. Morphine and gentamicin concentrations were determined by ELISA. Data were assessed using 2-way repeated measures ANOVA with significance set at P ≤ .05. RESULTS: Synovial fluid morphine concentrations were greatest 20 minutes after perfusion. Mean ± SD peak synovial morphine concentrations over 12 perfusions were 3903 ± 4881 ng/mL. There was no significant difference in morphine synovial concentrations after M or M/G. Plasma morphine concentrations peaked within 2 hours of perfusion (range, 11-63 ng/mL). Mean peak gentamicin concentrations in synovial fluid were 76,315 ± 39,809 ng/mL. IVRLP morphine did not cause clinically apparent adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS: IVRLP in standing sedated horses results in measurable levels of morphine in synovial fluid and synovial concentrations of gentamicin after perfusion in combination with morphine are equivalent to those previously reported.

Esophageal dysfunction in four alpaca crias and a llama cria with vascular ring anomalies.

CASE DESCRIPTION: 3 alpaca crias and cadavers of an alpaca cria and a llama cria were evaluated for evidence of esophageal dysfunction. CLINICAL FINDINGS: All 5 crias were between 3 and 5 months of age when clinical signs developed, and all had a thin body condition when examined. Clinical signs included coughing, regurgitation, and grossly visible esophageal peristaltic waves. A barium esophagram was used to diagnose esophageal obstruction, megaesophagus, and a vascular ring anomaly (VRA). Fluoroscopy was used to evaluate deglutition, esophageal peristalsis, and the extent of esophageal dilation in 1 alpaca cria. A persistent right aortic arch was identified in 1 alpaca cria, and a left aortic arch with right ductus arteriosus or ligamentum arteriosum and an aberrant right subclavian artery were identified in the 4 remaining crias. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Surgical correction of the VRA was attempted in the 3 live alpaca crias. It was complicated by the conformation and location of each VRA and inaccurate anatomic diagnosis of the VRAs before surgery. Treatment was universally unsuccessful because of intraoperative complications and the persistence of clinical signs after surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Megaesophagus is typically an idiopathic condition in camelids. However, these findings suggested that camelids with esophageal dysfunction during the neonatal period may have a VRA. The prognosis is grave for camelids with VRA, and accurate anatomic diagnosis of the VRA via the use of advanced imaging techniques (eg, angiography, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging) may improve the success of surgical intervention.

Clinical, ultrasonographic, and laboratory findings in 12 llamas and 12 alpacas with malignant round cell tumors.

Clinical signs, duration of illness, clinicopathologic findings, and ultrasonographic findings were evaluated in 12 llamas and 12 alpacas with malignant round cell tumors (MRCT). All but 1 animal died or was euthanized. Common clinical findings were anorexia, recumbency or weakness, and weight loss or poor growth. Peripheral lymphadenomegaly occurred in only 7 animals and was detected more often at necropsy than during physical examination. Common clinicopathologic abnormalities were hypoalbuminemia, acidosis, azotemia, anemia, hyperglycemia, and neutrophilia. Ultrasonography detected tumors in 4/6 animals. Cytologic evaluation of fluid or tissue aspirates or histopathology of biopsy tissue was diagnostic in 5/6 cases. A clinical course of 2 wk or less prior to death or euthanasia was more common in animals ≤ 2 y of age (9/11) than in older animals (6/13). Regular examination of camelids to include clinical pathology and evaluation of peripheral lymph nodes may result in early detection of MCRT.

Use of a polymerase chain reaction assay to study response to oxytetracycline treatment in experimental Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae infection in alpacas.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a PCR assay for Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae (CMhl) infection in alpacas and use it to study the efficacy of oxytetracycline treatment and development of a subclinical carrier state. ANIMALS: 8 healthy adult alpacas. PROCEDURES: Alpacas initially had negative results for CMhl in blood samples via PCR assay and were experimentally infected with CMhl; 4 were treated with oxytetracycline, and 4 were not treated. All were monitored regularly via PCR assay, blood smear examination, PCV, rectal temperature, and physical examination. At 6 months after treatment, all alpacas were immunosuppressed by administration of dexamethasone and tested for CMhl. RESULTS: 7 of 8 alpacas had positive PCR assay results 4 to 6 days after experimental infection. When organisms were detectable on a blood smear, they were seen 2 to 6 days after positive results of PCR assay. Infection was often associated with mild anemia that was usually transient. No alpacas became hypoglycemic. Oxytetracycline treatment was not associated with faster clearance of organisms or resolution of anemia, and 4 of 4 treated alpacas still had positive results of PCR assay when immunosuppressed 6 months later; 0 of 3 nontreated alpacas had positive results of PCR assay following immunosuppression. Transient fever was detected in 3 alpacas during immunosuppression. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The PCR assay was more sensitive than blood smear examination for detection of infection. Clinical signs, anemia, and fever were not necessarily associated with infection. Oxytetracyline administration did not consistently clear CMhl infection. Although treated with oxytetracycline, infected alpacas remained chronic carriers.

Characterization of hypertriglyceridemia and response to treatment with insulin in horses, ponies, and donkeys: 44 cases (1995-2005).

OBJECTIVE: To characterize signalment, clinical signs of disease, and clinical response to insulin in equids with hypertriglyceridemia. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 20 horses, 17 ponies, and 7 donkeys with hypertriglyceridemia. PROCEDURES: For analysis of medical record data, horses, donkeys, and ponies with multiple serum or plasma triglycerides measurements were separated into groups. Hypertriglyceridemic equids that were (HT-I; n = 14) or were not (HT-N; 10) treated with insulin consisted of equids with an initial triglycerides concentration > 44 mg/dL but < 500 mg/dL. Equids with an initial triglycerides concentration > 500 mg/dL, all of which were treated with insulin, constituted the lipemic group (LIP-I; 20). Each group included a full range of ages. Pretreatment and posttreatment values from serum or plasma biochemical analyses were compared among groups. RESULTS: No age predilection for hypertriglyceridemia was apparent. Of the 29 female equids, only 7 (24%) were lactating or pregnant. Multiple illnesses were diagnosed in hypertriglyceridemic equids, including colitis (14/44; 32%) and colic (9/44; 20%). Many breeds were affected, including 16 (36%) American Miniature Horses and 9 (20%) Arabians or Arabian crossbreds. The mean posttreatment triglycerides concentration was not significantly different from the initial value in HT-N equids (175 vs 125 mg/dL) but was significantly lower than the pretreatment triglycerides concentration in HT-I (252 vs 55 mg/dL) and LIP-I (872 vs 87 mg/dL) equids. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Equids of all ages and sexes with various diseases had hypertriglyceridemia. Insulin treatment decreased the triglycerides concentrations in affected equids.

Hematologic effects of subcutaneous administration of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (filgrastim) in healthy alpacas.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of SC administration of filgrastim on cell counts in venous blood and bone marrow of healthy adult alpacas. ANIMALS: 10 healthy alpacas. PROCEDURES: Alpacas were randomly assigned to receive treatment with filgrastim (5 microg/kg, SC; n=5) or an equivalent volume of physiologic saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (5) once a day for 3 days. Blood samples were obtained via jugular venipuncture 1 day prior to treatment and once a day for 5 days commencing 24 hours after the first dose was administered. Complete blood counts were performed for each blood sample. Bone marrow aspirates were obtained from the sternum of each alpaca 48 hours before the first treatment was administered and 72 hours after the third treatment was administered. Myeloid-to-erythroid cell (M:E) ratio was determined via cytologic evaluation of bone marrow aspirates. RESULTS: In filgrastim-treated alpacas, substantial increases in counts of WBCs and neutrophils were detected within 24 hours after the first dose was administered. Band cell count and percentage significantly increased 24 hours after the second dose. Counts of WBCs, neutrophils, and band cells remained high 48 hours after the third dose. Red blood cell counts and PCV were unaffected. The M:E ratio also increased significantly after treatment with filgrastim. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Filgrastim induced rapid and substantial increases in numbers of circulating neutrophils and M:E ratios of bone marrow in healthy alpacas. Therefore, filgrastim may be useful in the treatment of camelids with impaired bone marrow function.

Characterization of hypertriglyceridemia and response to treatment with insulin in llamas and alpacas: 31 cases (1995-2005).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate camelids with hypertriglyceridemia with regard to signalment, clinical features of disease, and response to treatment with insulin. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 23 alpacas and 8 llamas with hypertriglyceridemia. PROCEDURES: For analysis of medical record data, 20 hypertriglyceridemic camelids with multiple recorded measurements of serum or plasma triglycerides concentration were classified as follows: those with an initial triglycerides concentration > 60 to > or = 500 mg/dL that were or were not treated with insulin (HT-I and HT-N camelids, respectively) and those with an initial triglycerides concentration > 500 mg/dL that were treated with insulin (lipemic [LIP-I] camelids). Only 1 recorded triglycerides concentration was available for an additional 11 hypertriglyceridemic camelids; data from those records were included in the characterization of signalment and clinical features of disease. RESULTS: Compared with the general population of hospitalized camelids, hypertriglyceridemic camelids did not differ significantly with respect to age or sex. Of 22 female camelids, only 7 were lactating or pregnant. Serum or plasma triglycerides concentrations in HT-N and HT-I camelids did not differ significantly at admission, but triglycerides concentrations in HT-I camelids decreased significantly after insulin treatment. Posttreatment triglycerides concentrations in HT-I camelids were significantly lower than those in HT-N camelids. During the period of hospitalization, triglycerides concentrations in HT-N camelids increased, whereas those in LIP-I camelids decreased significantly. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that hypertriglyceridemia affects llamas and alpacas of all ages and both sexes. Insulin treatment may reduce serum or plasma triglycerides concentrations in camelids with hypertriglyceridemia.

Comparison of methods to detect gastrointestinal parasites in llamas and alpacas.

OBJECTIVE: To compare relative sensitivity and overall yields of various methods of fecal examination for gastrointestinal parasites in llamas and alpacas. DESIGN: Prospective study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Fecal samples from 42 alpacas and 62 llamas. PROCEDURES: Fecal samples were analyzed via direct smear, a modified McMaster technique with sucrose solution or saturated saline (approx 36% NaCl) solution, and a centrifugation-flotation procedure. McMaster flotation chambers were examined 15 and 60 minutes after loading. Centrifugation-flotation samples were examined after 10 and 60 minutes of flotation. The proportions of samples with positive results and concentrations of parasites were compared among methods. RESULTS: The centrifugation-flotation technique yielded more positive results than other methods for all parasites except small coccidia. Longer flotation time increased the proportion of positive results and parasite concentrations for all parasites except Nematodirus spp. Longer time in the McMaster chamber made little difference. By use of the modified McMaster technique, sucrose solution yielded more positive results for Trichuris spp, Eimeria macusaniensis, and strongyles, whereas saline solution yielded more positive results for Nematodirus spp and small coccidia. The saline solution McMaster test yielded more positive results for small coccidia than did most other methods, and the sucrose McMaster technique yielded more positive results for Trichuris spp. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The centrifugation-flotation technique appeared to offer clear advantages in detecting infection with E macusaniensis, Trichuris spp, Nematodirus spp, and capillarids. The saline McMaster technique appeared to offer an advantage in detecting small coccidia.

Collection and analysis of peritoneal fluid from healthy llamas and alpacas.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a technique for abdominocentesis in camelids and report peritoneal fluid biochemical and cytologic findings from healthy llamas and alpacas. DESIGN: Prospective study. Animals-17 adult llamas and 5 adult alpacas. PROCEDURES: Right paracostal abdominocentesis was performed. Peritoneal fluid was collected by gravity flow into tubes containing potassium-EDTA for cell count and cytologic evaluation and lithium heparin for biochemical analysis. Blood samples were collected via jugular venipuncture into heparinized tubes at the same time. Cytologic components were quantified. Fluid pH and concentrations of total carbon dioxide, sodium, potassium, chloride, lactate, and glucose were compared between peritoneal fluid and venous blood. RESULTS: All but 3 camelids had peritoneal fluid cell counts of < 3,000 nucleated cells/microL, with < 2,000 neutrophils/microL and < 1,040 large mononuclear cells/microL. All but 1 had peritoneal fluid protein concentrations of > or = 2.5 g/dL. Peritoneal fluid of camelids generally contained slightly less glucose, lactate, and sodium and roughly equal concentrations of potassium and chloride as venous blood. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Peritoneal fluid was collected safely from healthy camelids. Compared with blood, peritoneal fluid usually had a low cell count and protein concentration, but some individuals had higher values. Electrolyte concentrations resembled those found in blood. High cell counts and protein concentrations found in peritoneal fluid of some healthy camelids may overlap with values found in diseased camelids, complicating interpretation of peritoneal fluid values.

Cryptosporidiosis in 20 alpaca crias.

CASE DESCRIPTION: 20 alpaca crias (13 females and 7 males) were examined for diarrhea (n=20), weight loss (15), and poor appetite (5). Fourteen crias were between 8 and 18 days of age at time of admission. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Cryptosporidiosis was diagnosed in all crias. Common biochemical abnormalities included acidemia, hyperlactemia, azotemia, and hyperglycemia and increases in aspartate transaminase and gamma-glutamyltransferase activities. Serum sodium and chloride concentrations were high or low. Other potential gastrointestinal tract pathogens were identified in only 7 crias. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Supportive care was instituted, including i.v. administration of fluids with partial parenteral administration of nutrients (n=19 crias), antimicrobials (19), supplemental orally administered nutrients (11), administration of plasma (10), and insulin treatment (9). Other palliative treatments used by attending clinicians were sucralfate, flunixin meglumine, vitamin A/D/E/B complex, antiparasitic agents, antidiarrheal agents, and azithromycin. Three crias with inadequate urine production and severe azotemia were treated with furosemide administered i.v. as a bolus or as a constant-rate infusion. Treatment resulted in a successful outcome in 16 of 20 crias. Weight loss and refractory azotemia were common in nonsurvivors but not in surviving crias. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings suggested that Cryptosporidium spp may be a diarrheal pathogen of unweaned alpaca crias that may be more widespread than has been recognized and can become endemic on some farms. Metabolic derangements were unpredictable and should be determined by biochemical analysis before fluid and electrolyte replacement is initiated. Cryptosporidiosis has zoonotic potential, and the infection can be self-limiting in alpacas receiving supportive treatment.

Fatal gastrointestinal parasitism in goats: 31 cases (2001-2006).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate signalment, history, clinical and pathologic findings, and seasonal weather patterns in association with fatal gastrointestinal parasitism in goats. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 152 goats that were > 1 day of age. PROCEDURES: Characteristics including age and counts of coccidia oocysts and trichostrongyle ova (eggs) per gram of feces (EPG) in goats that died because of gastrointestinal parasitism and goats that died because of other causes were compared. Weather data and annual incidence of caprine fatal gastrointestinal parasitism were investigated. RESULTS: Death was attributed to gastrointestinal parasitism in 31 of 152 (20%) goats (median age, 5 months; range, 1 month to 7 years); deaths were attributed to coccidiosis (n = 7 goats; median age, 4 months; median EPG, 2,225), trichostrongylosis (6 goats; median age, 1.25 years; median EPG, 3,700), or dual infection (18 goats; median age, 6.7 months; median EPG, 8,088 coccidia and 5,475 trichostrongyles). Sudden onset of weakness or death was a common historical finding; diarrhea was evident in 15 goats. Common postmortem findings in these goats included cachexia, tissue pallor, poorly formed feces, and mesenteric lymphadenomegaly. Wet weather in spring and summer was associated with increased annual incidence of fatal gastrointestinal parasitism in goats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Gastrointestinal parasitism is an important cause of death in goats. Clinical signs may not develop until just prior to death, and diagnosis is achieved via parasitologic evaluation of feces and necropsy. Seasonal weather patterns should be considered on an annual basis when designing parasite control programs for goats.

Eimeria macusaniensis infection in 15 llamas and 34 alpacas.

CASE DESCRIPTION: 15 llamas and 34 alpacas between 3 weeks and 18 years old with fecal oocysts or intestinal coccidial stages morphologically consistent with Eimeria macusaniensis were examined. Nineteen of the camelids were admitted dead, and 30 were admitted alive. Camelids admitted alive accounted for 5.5% of all camelid admissions during this period. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Many severely affected camelids had signs of lethargy, weight loss, decreased appetite, and diarrhea. Camelids with clinical infection also commonly had evidence of circulatory shock, fat mobilization, and protein loss. Nonsurviving camelids also had evidence of shock, edema, bile stasis, renal insufficiency, hepatic lipidosis, muscle damage, relative hemoconcentration, and sepsis. Postmortem examination frequently revealed complete, segmental replacement of the mucosa of the distal portion of the jejunum with coccidial meronts and gamonts. For 17 of 42 camelids, results of initial fecal examinations for E macusaniensis were negative. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Most camelids admitted alive were treated with amprolium hydrochloride, plasma, and various supportive treatments. Fifteen of the 30 treated camelids died or were euthanized. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings suggest that E macusaniensis may be an important gastrointestinal tract pathogen in camelids of all ages. Clinical signs were frequently nonspecific and were often evident before results of fecal examinations for the parasite were positive. As with other coccidia, severity of disease was probably related to ingested dose, host immunity, and other factors. The clinical and herd relevance of positive fecal examination results must be determined.

Compressive myelopathy due to intervertebral disk extrusion in a llama (Lama glama).

A 12-year-old intact female llama was euthanized following acute onset of spastic tetraparesis and recumbency with inability to rise. Postmortem examination revealed caudal cervical spinal cord compression due to a mass within the ventral spinal canal arising from the C6-C7 intervertebral disk space and attached to an irregularly thickened annulus fibrosis. On histopathologic examination, the mass was composed of amorphous acellular basophilic to amphophilic material admixed with irregularly arranged collagen bundles. The amorphous material was metachromatic and contained multiple small foci of markedly vacuolated round cells, characteristic of origin from the nucleus pulposus. Severe necrosis of all white matter tracts with astrocytic reaction was present in the overlying spinal cord segment. Ascending and descending Wallerian degeneration and dissecting interstitial astrogliosis were present within white matter tracts above and below the lesion, respectively. The diagnosis was compressive myelopathy due to chronic extrusion of the nucleus pulposus of the C6-C7 intervertebral disk. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of intervertebral disk disease in a camelid.

Panniculitis in a horse with peripancreatitis and pancreatic fibrosis.

A 22-year-old pinto mixed breed mare was admitted for evaluation of severe colic signs and gastric reflux. Multiple nonpainful, variably sized hard masses were palpated in the subcutis over the thorax, abdomen, and hindquarters of the horse. The mare was diagnosed with sterile peritonitis and had systemically high gamma-glutamyltransferase, amylase, and lipase. Three days into treatment she became febrile with signs of persistent and mild abdominal discomfort; euthanasia was elected. Necropsy revealed peripancreatitis, pancreatic fibrosis, abdominal steatitis and panniculitis. Panniculitis associated with peripancreatitis has been described in humans and dogs but not in horses. Pathogenic models for this entity are discussed.

Microanatomic features of pancreatic islets and immunolocalization of glucose transporters in tissues of llamas and alpacas.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the microanatomic features of pancreatic islets and the immunohistochemical distribution of glucose transporter (GLUT) molecules in the pancreas and other tissues of New World camelids. ANIMALS: 7 healthy adult New World camelids, 2 neonatal camelids with developmental skeletal abnormalities, and 2 BALB/c mice. PROCEDURE: Samples of pancreas, liver, skeletal muscle, mammary gland, brain, and adipose tissue were collected postmortem from camelids and mice. Pancreatic tissue sections from camelids were assessed microscopically. Sections of all tissues from camelids and mice (positive control specimens) were examined after staining with antibodies against GLUT-1, -2, -3, and -4 molecules. RESULTS: In camelids, pancreatic islets were prominent and lacked connective tissue capsules. Numerous individual endocrine-type cells were visible distant from the islets. Findings in neonatal and adult tissues were similar; however, the former appeared to have more non-islet-associated endocrine cells. Via immunostaining, GLUT-2 molecules were detected on pancreatic endocrine cells and hepatocytes in camelids, GLUT-1 molecules were detected on the capillary endothelium of the CNS, GLUT-3 molecules were detected throughout the gray matter, and GLUT-4 molecules were not detected in any camelid tissues. Staining characteristics of neonatal and adult tissues were similar. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In New World camelids, microanatomic features of pancreatic islets are similar to those of other mammals. Data suggest that the poor glucose clearance and poor insulin response to hyperglycemia in adult camelids cannot be attributed to a lack of islet cells or lack of GLUT molecules on the outer membrane of those cells.