RESUMO
The EML4 (echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4)-ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) fusion gene in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was first identified in 2007. As the EML4-ALK fusion protein promotes carcinogenesis in lung cells, much attention has been paid to it, leading to the development of therapies for patients with NSCLC. These therapies include ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors and heat shock protein 90 inhibitors. However, detailed information on the entire structure and function of the EML4-ALK protein remains deficient, and there are many obstacles to overcome in the development of novel anticancer agents. In this review, we describe the respective partial structures of EML4 and ALK that are known to date. In addition to their structures, noteworthy structural features and launched inhibitors of the EML4-ALK protein are summarized. Furthermore, based on the structural features and inhibitor-binding modes, we discuss strategies for the development of novel inhibitors targeting the EML4-ALK protein.
Assuntos
Antineoplásicos , Carcinoma Pulmonar de Células não Pequenas , Neoplasias Pulmonares , Humanos , Carcinoma Pulmonar de Células não Pequenas/tratamento farmacológico , Carcinoma Pulmonar de Células não Pequenas/genética , Carcinoma Pulmonar de Células não Pequenas/patologia , Neoplasias Pulmonares/tratamento farmacológico , Neoplasias Pulmonares/genética , Neoplasias Pulmonares/patologia , Receptores Proteína Tirosina Quinases/metabolismo , Pulmão/patologia , Antineoplásicos/farmacologia , Antineoplásicos/uso terapêutico , Proteínas de Fusão Oncogênica/genética , Proteínas de Fusão Oncogênica/metabolismo , Inibidores de Proteínas Quinases/farmacologia , Inibidores de Proteínas Quinases/uso terapêuticoRESUMO
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is one of the main consequences of liver disease and is observed in severe liver failure and cirrhosis. Recent studies have provided significant evidence that HE shows several neurological symptoms including depressive mood, cognitive dysfunction, impaired circadian rhythm, and attention deficits as well as motor disturbance. Liver disease is also a risk factor for the development of diabetes mellitus. Diabetic encephalopathy (DE) is characterized by cognitive dysfunction and motor impairment. Recent research investigated the relationship between metabolic changes and the pathogenesis of neurological disease, indicating the importance between metabolic organs and the brain. Given that a diverse number of metabolites and changes in the brain contribute to neurologic dysfunction, HE and DE are emerging types of neurologic disease. Here, we review significant evidence of the association between HE and DE, and summarise the common risk factors. This review may provide promising therapeutic information and help to design a future metabolic organ-related study in relation to HE and DE.
Assuntos
Encéfalo/patologia , Diabetes Mellitus/patologia , Encefalopatia Hepática/patologia , Fígado/patologia , Animais , Disfunção Cognitiva/patologia , HumanosRESUMO
The outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) began at the end of 2019. COVID-19 is caused by infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and patients with COVID-19 may exhibit poor clinical outcomes. Some patients with severe COVID-19 experience cytokine release syndrome (CRS) or a cytokine storm-elevated levels of hyperactivated immune cells-and circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18. This severe inflammatory response can lead to organ damage/failure and even death. The inflammasome is an intracellular immune complex that is responsible for the secretion of IL-1ß and IL-18 in various human diseases. Recently, there has been a growing number of studies revealing a link between the inflammasome and COVID-19. Therefore, this article summarizes the current literature regarding the inflammasome complex and COVID-19.
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COVID-19/imunologia , COVID-19/virologia , Inflamassomos/imunologia , Inflamassomos/metabolismo , SARS-CoV-2/imunologia , SARS-CoV-2/metabolismo , Imunidade Adaptativa/imunologia , Animais , COVID-19/complicações , Síndrome da Liberação de Citocina/tratamento farmacológico , Síndrome da Liberação de Citocina/etiologia , Síndrome da Liberação de Citocina/imunologia , Humanos , Insuficiência de Múltiplos Órgãos/tratamento farmacológico , Insuficiência de Múltiplos Órgãos/etiologia , Insuficiência de Múltiplos Órgãos/imunologia , Tratamento Farmacológico da COVID-19RESUMO
Cognitive symptoms are prevalent in the elderly and are associated with an elevated risk of developing dementia. Disease-driven changes can cause cognitive disabilities in memory, attention, and language. The inflammasome is an innate immune intracellular complex that has a critical role in the host defense system, in that it senses infectious pathogen-associated and endogenous danger-associated molecular patterns. An unbalanced or dysregulated inflammasome is associated with infectious, inflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases. Due to its importance in such pathological conditions, the inflammasome is an emerging drug target for human diseases. A growing number of studies have revealed links between cognitive symptoms and the inflammasome. Several studies have shown that reducing the inflammasome component mitigates cognitive symptoms in diseased states. Therefore, understanding the inflammasome regulatory mechanisms may be required for the prevention and treatment of cognitive symptoms. The purpose of this review is to discuss the current understanding of the inflammasome and its relationships with cognitive symptoms in various human diseases.
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Inflamassomos/metabolismo , Transtornos Neurocognitivos/metabolismo , Sepse/complicações , Animais , Apoptose , Humanos , Interleucinas/genética , Interleucinas/metabolismo , Transtornos Neurocognitivos/etiologiaRESUMO
Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is the only recommended pharmacological treatment for acute ischemic stroke. However, tPA can induce intracerebral hemorrhage by blood-brain barrier breakdown through an increase in matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Previously, we showed that isoflurane postconditioning reduced intracranial hemorrhage following tPA treatment after cerebral ischemia. Here, we investigated the mechanism by which isoflurane postconditioning reduces tPA-induced MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation following hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) in brain endothelial cells. Mouse brain endothelial cells (bEnd.3) were exposed to 6 h of oxygen-glucose deprivation and 3 h of reoxygenation with tPA. Cells were treated with isoflurane for 1 h of the reoxygenation condition and the effect of isoflurane postconditioning on MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation was assessed. Involvement of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP), which is a receptor for tPA, and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and NF-κB pathway in isoflurane postconditioning was assessed using LRP inhibitor (receptor-associated protein, RAP) and ERK-1/2 inhibitor (PD98059). Isoflurane postconditioning decreased tPA-induced MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation under H/R. tPA treatment under H/R increased expression of LRP and the active form of NF-κB. Isoflurane postconditioning suppressed LRP expression, increased ERK-1/2 activation, and suppressed MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation, comparable to the effect of RAP. Activation of ERK-1/2, inhibition of NF-κB activation, and suppression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation by isoflurane postconditioning were abolished with PD98059 treatment. These finding indicate that isoflurane postconditioning inhibits tPA-induced MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation following H/R via the LRP/ERK/NF-κB pathway in bEnd.3.
Assuntos
MAP Quinases Reguladas por Sinal Extracelular/metabolismo , Pós-Condicionamento Isquêmico/métodos , Isoflurano/farmacologia , Proteína-1 Relacionada a Receptor de Lipoproteína de Baixa Densidade/metabolismo , Metaloproteinases da Matriz/metabolismo , Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual/farmacologia , Anestésicos Inalatórios/farmacologia , Animais , Hipóxia Celular/efeitos dos fármacos , Hipóxia Celular/fisiologia , Linhagem Celular , Sobrevivência Celular/efeitos dos fármacos , Sobrevivência Celular/fisiologia , Relação Dose-Resposta a Droga , Células Endoteliais/efeitos dos fármacos , Células Endoteliais/metabolismo , Ativação Enzimática/efeitos dos fármacos , Ativação Enzimática/fisiologia , MAP Quinases Reguladas por Sinal Extracelular/antagonistas & inibidores , Camundongos , Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual/antagonistas & inibidoresRESUMO
Tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) is the only treatment for ischemic stroke. However, tPA could induce the intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), which is the main cause of death in ischemic stroke patient after tPA treatment. At present, there is no treatment strategy to ameliorate tPA-induced brain injury after ischemia. Therefore, we investigated the effect of pre-treated isoflurane, which is a volatile anesthetic and has beneficial effects on neurological dysfunction, brain edema and infarct volume in ischemic stroke model. In this study, we used oxygen/glucose deprivation and reperfusion (OGD/R) condition to mimic an ischemic stroke in vitro. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) activity was measured in endothelial cell media. Also, neuronal cell culture was performed to investigate the effect of pretreated isoflurane on the neuronal cell survival after tPA-induced injury during OGD/R. Isoflurane pretreatment prevented tPA-induced MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity and suppressed tPA-triggered LRP/NF-κB/Cox-2 signaling after OGD/R. Neuronal cells, incubated with endothelial cell conditioned medium (EC-CM) after tPA + OGD/R, showed upregulation of pro-apoptotic molecules. However, neurons incubated with isoflurane-pretreated EC-CM showed increased anti-apoptotic molecules. Our findings suggest that isoflurane pretreatment could attenuate tPA-exaggerated brain ischemic injury, by reducing tPA-induced LRP/NF-κB/Cox-2 in endothelial cells, endothelial MMP-2 and MMP-9 activation, and subsequent pro-apoptotic molecule in neurons after OGD/R.
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Lesões Encefálicas/tratamento farmacológico , Isquemia Encefálica/tratamento farmacológico , Isoflurano/administração & dosagem , Acidente Vascular Cerebral/tratamento farmacológico , Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual/administração & dosagem , Animais , Apoptose/efeitos dos fármacos , Lesões Encefálicas/complicações , Lesões Encefálicas/genética , Lesões Encefálicas/patologia , Isquemia Encefálica/complicações , Isquemia Encefálica/genética , Isquemia Encefálica/patologia , Meios de Cultivo Condicionados , Ciclo-Oxigenase 2/genética , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Células Endoteliais/efeitos dos fármacos , Células Endoteliais/patologia , Glucose/metabolismo , Humanos , Hemorragias Intracranianas/induzido quimicamente , Hemorragias Intracranianas/tratamento farmacológico , Hemorragias Intracranianas/genética , Hemorragias Intracranianas/patologia , Proteína-1 Relacionada a Receptor de Lipoproteína de Baixa Densidade , Metaloproteinase 2 da Matriz/genética , Camundongos , NF-kappa B/genética , Neurônios/efeitos dos fármacos , Neurônios/patologia , Oxigênio/metabolismo , Receptores de LDL/genética , Acidente Vascular Cerebral/genética , Acidente Vascular Cerebral/patologia , Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual/efeitos adversos , Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual/genética , Proteínas Supressoras de Tumor/genéticaRESUMO
Reactive astrocytes play an essential role in determining the tissue response to ischaemia. Formation of a glial scar can block the neuronal outgrowth that is required for restoration of damaged tissue. Therefore, regulation of astrocyte activation is important; however, the mediator of this process has not been fully elucidated. Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is an early responder to oxidative stress, and plays a pivotal role in the intracellular signalling pathway of apoptosis, inflammation, and differentiation. To confirm whether ASK1 mediates astrocyte activation and leads to glial scar formation after cerebral ischaemia, we conducted in vivo and in vitro experiments. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, and astrocyte cultures were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation. After silencing of ASK1 , astrocyte-associated genes were downregulated, as seen with the use of microarrays. The glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) level was decreased, and correlated with the reduction in the ASK1 level. In astrocytes, reduction in the ASK1 level decreased the activity of the p38 pathway, and the levels of transcription factors for GFAP and GFAP transcripts after hypoxia. In the chronic phase, ASK1 depletion reduced glial scar formation and conserved neuronal structure, which may lead to better functional recovery. These data suggest that ASK1 may be an important mediator of ischaemia-induced astrocyte activation and scar formation, and could provide a potential therapeutic target for treatment after ischaemic stroke.
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Astrócitos/metabolismo , Cicatriz/metabolismo , Infarto da Artéria Cerebral Média/metabolismo , MAP Quinase Quinase Quinase 5/genética , Animais , Astrócitos/patologia , Linhagem Celular , Proteína Glial Fibrilar Ácida/genética , Proteína Glial Fibrilar Ácida/metabolismo , Infarto da Artéria Cerebral Média/patologia , MAP Quinase Quinase Quinase 5/metabolismo , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Proteínas Quinases p38 Ativadas por Mitógeno/metabolismoRESUMO
Suppression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation, which is best known as a major regulator of innate and adaptive immune responses, is a potent strategy for the treatment of endotoxic sepsis. To inhibit NF-κB functions, we designed the intra-nuclear transducible form of transcription modulation domain (TMD) of RelA (p65), called nt-p65-TMD, which can be delivered effectively into the nucleus without influencing the cell viability, and work as interactomic inhibitors via disruption of the endogenous p65-mediated transcription complex. nt-p65-TMD effectively inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1ß, or IL-6 from BV2 microglia cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). nt-p65-TMD did not inhibit tyrosine phosphorylation of signaling mediators such as ZAP-70, p38, JNK, or ERK involved in T cell activation, but was capable of suppressing the transcriptional activity of NF-κB without the functional effect on that of NFAT upon T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation. The transduced nt-p65-TMD in T cell did not affect the expression of CD69, however significantly inhibited the secretion of T cell-specific cytokines such as IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17A, or IL-10. Systemic administration of nt-p65-TMD showed a significant therapeutic effect on LPS-induced sepsis model by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion. Therefore, nt-p65-TMD can be a novel therapeutics for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including sepsis, where a transcription factor has a key role in pathogenesis, and further allows us to discover new functions of p65 under normal physiological condition without genetic alteration.
Assuntos
NF-kappa B/antagonistas & inibidores , Sepse/terapia , Animais , Células Cultivadas , Citocinas/antagonistas & inibidores , Citocinas/biossíntese , Feminino , Células HEK293 , Células HeLa , Humanos , Células Jurkat , Lipopolissacarídeos/toxicidade , Ativação Linfocitária , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos BALB C , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , NF-kappa B/genética , NF-kappa B/imunologia , Estrutura Terciária de Proteína/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes/imunologia , Proteínas Recombinantes/farmacologia , Sepse/etiologia , Sepse/metabolismo , Linfócitos T/imunologia , Linfócitos T/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição RelA/antagonistas & inibidores , Fator de Transcrição RelA/genética , Fator de Transcrição RelA/imunologia , Transcrição Gênica , Transdução GenéticaRESUMO
The cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), which activates prosurvival signaling proteins, has been implicated in the expression of long-term potentiation and hippocampal long-term memory. It has come to light that H89 commonly known as the PKA inhibitor have diverse roles in the nervous system that are unrelated to its role as a PKA inhibitor. We have investigated the role of H89 in ischemic and reperfusion injury. First, we examined the expression of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), and synaptophysin in mouse brain after middle cerebral artery occlusion injury. Next, we examined the role of H89 pretreatment on the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), PSD95, MAP2, and the apoptosis regulators Bcl2 and cleaved caspase-3 in cultured neuroblastoma cells exposed to hypoxia and reperfusion injury. In addition, we investigated the alteration of AKT activation in H89 pretreated neuroblastoma cells under hypoxia and reperfusion injury. The data suggest that H89 may contribute to brain recovery after ischemic stroke by regulating neuronal death and proteins related to synaptic plasticity.
Assuntos
Isquemia Encefálica/tratamento farmacológico , Isquemia Encefálica/patologia , Morte Celular/efeitos dos fármacos , Proteínas Quinases Dependentes de AMP Cíclico/antagonistas & inibidores , Isoquinolinas/uso terapêutico , Neurônios/efeitos dos fármacos , Inibidores de Proteínas Quinases/uso terapêutico , Sulfonamidas/uso terapêutico , Sinapses/efeitos dos fármacos , Animais , Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/genética , Proteínas Reguladoras de Apoptose/metabolismo , Fator Neurotrófico Derivado do Encéfalo/biossíntese , Proteína 4 Homóloga a Disks-Large , Guanilato Quinases/genética , Hipóxia Encefálica/patologia , Infarto da Artéria Cerebral Média/tratamento farmacológico , Infarto da Artéria Cerebral Média/patologia , Masculino , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Proteínas Associadas aos Microtúbulos/genética , Neurônios/ultraestrutura , Traumatismo por Reperfusão/tratamento farmacológico , Traumatismo por Reperfusão/patologia , Sinapses/ultraestruturaRESUMO
Microglia are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and play an important role in neuronal recovery by scavenging damaged neurons. However, overactivation of microglia leads to neuronal death that is associated with CNS disorders. Therefore, regulation of microglial activation has been suggested to be an important target for treatment of CNS diseases. In the present study, we investigated the beneficial effect of resveratrol, a natural phenol with antioxidant effects, in the microglial cell line, BV2, in a model of hypoxia injury. Resveratrol suppressed the mRNA expression of the pro-inflammatory molecule, tumor necrosis factor-α, and promoted the mRNA expression of the anti-inflammatory molecule, interleukin-10, in BV2 microglia under hypoxic conditions. In addition, resveratrol inhibited the activation of the transcription factor, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), which is upstream in the control of inflammatory reactions in hypoxia-injured BV2 microglia. Moreover, resveratrol promoted the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in BV2 microglia under hypoxic stress. Overall, resveratrol may promote the beneficial function of microglia in ischemic brain injury.
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Antioxidantes/farmacologia , Fator Neurotrófico Derivado do Encéfalo/metabolismo , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Microglia/efeitos dos fármacos , Estilbenos/farmacologia , Animais , Fator Neurotrófico Derivado do Encéfalo/genética , Hipóxia Celular , Linhagem Celular , Interleucina-10/genética , Camundongos , Microglia/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/genética , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , RNA Mensageiro/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , Resveratrol , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/genética , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa/metabolismoRESUMO
Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase-1 (ASK1), an early signaling element in the cell death pathway, has been suggested to participate in the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases, which may be associated with environmental factors that impact the diseases. Although it is not entirely elucidated, 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) provokes mitochondrial dysfunction and selectively forms striatal lesions similar to those found in Huntington's disease. The current study investigated whether ASK1 is involved in striatal pathology following chronic systemic infusion of 3-NP. The results show that ASK1 acts as a primary mediator of there active oxygen species (ROS) cell death signal cascade in the 3-NP-damaged striatal region by disrupting the positive feedback cycle. In 3-NP-infused striatal lesions, ROS increased ASK1. Superoxide dismutase transgenic (SOD-tg) mice reduced ASK1by scavenging ROS, and reduction of ASK1leads to a reduction in cell death. However, ASK1 down-regulation in 3-NP infusion mice also decreased striatal cell death without scavenging ROS. In contrast decreasing cell death by si-ASK1 treatment along with 3-NP in both SOD tg and wild-type mice (wt), cell death rebounded when ASK1 peptide was added to SOD tg mice. The present study suggests that ROS-inducing ASK1 may be an important step in the pathogenesis of 3-NP infused striatal lesions in murine brains.
Assuntos
Corpo Estriado/patologia , MAP Quinase Quinase Quinase 5/fisiologia , Doenças Neurodegenerativas/enzimologia , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Animais , Apoptose , Corpo Estriado/efeitos dos fármacos , Corpo Estriado/enzimologia , MAP Quinase Quinase Quinase 5/genética , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Transgênicos , Doenças Neurodegenerativas/induzido quimicamente , Doenças Neurodegenerativas/genética , Nitrocompostos/farmacologia , Propionatos/farmacologia , Superóxido Dismutase/genética , Superóxido Dismutase-1RESUMO
Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer has been traditionally used as a medicinal plant and has beneficial effects due to pharmacological properties. Although ginseng is thought to be protective under abnormal conditions, the effects of pretreatment with red ginseng (RG) extract on ischemic stroke have not been fully elucidated. We investigated the protective effects of RG extract after focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Crude RG extract (360 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally for 2 weeks. Mice were then subjected to occlusion of the middle cerebral artery for 1 hour, followed by reperfusion for 4 and 24 hours. Pretreatment with RG extract followed by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) resulted in significant reduction of oxidized hydroethidine signals in ischemic areas. At 4 and 24 hours after I/R, the number of 8-hydroxyguanosine and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1)-positive cells decreased in the ischemic penumbra as seen using immunofluorescent staining. Western blotting showed that RG efficiently attenuated the protein levels of activated ASK1 in the ischemic penumbra. Consequently, DNA fragmentation and the infarct volume were reduced by RG extract pretreatment 24 hours after I/R. Also, RG extract resulted in better performance in rotarod test after I/R. Thus, RG pretreatment demonstrates a protective effect at suppressing ischemia-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in ischemic lesions. Pretreatment with crude RG extract may be an effective strategy for preventing brain injury after an ischemic stroke.
Assuntos
Apoptose/efeitos dos fármacos , Isquemia Encefálica/metabolismo , Fármacos Neuroprotetores/farmacologia , Estresse Oxidativo/efeitos dos fármacos , Panax , Extratos Vegetais/farmacologia , Traumatismo por Reperfusão/metabolismo , Animais , Encéfalo/efeitos dos fármacos , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Encéfalo/patologia , Isquemia Encefálica/tratamento farmacológico , Isquemia Encefálica/patologia , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Atividade Motora/efeitos dos fármacos , Fármacos Neuroprotetores/uso terapêutico , Extratos Vegetais/uso terapêutico , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Recuperação de Função Fisiológica/efeitos dos fármacos , Traumatismo por Reperfusão/tratamento farmacológico , Traumatismo por Reperfusão/patologiaRESUMO
Cholesterol metabolism plays an essential role in cellular functions (including as a component of the plasma membrane, as an energy source, and in hormone production) under normal conditions. Dysregulated cholesterol metabolism causes a wide spectrum of pathological conditions, leading to neuropsychiatric disorders, such as anxiety and depression. In addition, patients with neuropsychiatric disorders also have impaired cholesterol metabolism. Therefore, metabolic disturbances are closely associated with the neuropsychiatric disorders. Although immune disturbance, neuroinflammation, a dysregulated neurotransmitter system, and oxidative stress have been suggested as pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders, dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism is also found in patients with psychiatric diseases. As expected, patients with mental illness appear to be at risk of metabolic disorders, including metabolic syndrome, in which cholesterol influences altered neuronal homeostasis, such as neuronal cell toxicity, neuronal cell death, and neuronal structures and functions, including synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, axonogenesis, and action potential. Therefore, reversing impaired or abnormal cholesterol metabolism may help restore neuronal injury found in mental illness. This review is aimed to discuss the links between cholesterol metabolism impairment and neuropsychiatric disorders and provides insights into neuronal dysfunction due to abnormal cholesterol metabolism in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Objective: Hypercholesterolaemia transforms macrophages into lipid-laden foam cells in circulation, which can activate the immune response. Compromised autophagy and inflammatory cytokines are involved in the pathogenesis and progression of metabolic diseases. The aim of this study was to identify the role of autophagy as a modulator of the inflammatory response and cytotoxicity in macrophages under hypercholesterolaemic conditions. Methods: High cholesterol-induced cytokine secretion and alteration of autophagy-associated molecules were confirmed by cytokine array and western blot analysis, respectively. To confirm whether autophagic regulation affects high cholesterol-induced cytokine release and cytotoxicity, protein levels of autophagic molecules, cell viability, and cytotoxicity were measured in cultured macrophages treated autophagy enhancers. Results: Cholesterol treatment increased cytokine secretion, cellular toxicity, and lactate dehydrogenase release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed macrophages. Concomitantly, altered levels of autophagy-related molecules were detected in LPS-primed macrophages under hypercholesterolaemic conditions. Treatment with autophagy enhancers reversed the secretion of cytokines, abnormally expressed autophagy-associated molecules, and cytotoxicity of LPS-primed macrophages. Conclusion: Autophagy enhancers inhibit inflammatory cytokine secretion and reduce cytotoxicity under metabolic disturbances, such as hypercholesterolaemia. Modulation of autophagy may be a novel approach to control the inflammatory response observed in metabolic diseases.
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BACKGROUND: The role of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is unclear. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) is a signal for NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Therefore, we aimed to determine whether mtROS-dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation is involved in HE, using in vivo and in vitro models. METHODS: Bile duct ligation (BDL) in C57/BL6 mice was used as an in vivo HE model. NLRP3 activation was assessed in the hippocampus. Immunofluorescence staining was performed to determine the cellular source of NLRP3 in the hippocampal tissue. For the in vitro experiment, BV-2 microglial cells were primed with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), followed by ammonia treatment. NLRP3 activation and mitochondrial dysfunction were measured. Mito-TEMPO was used to suppress mtROS production. RESULTS: BDL mice showed cognitive impairment with hyperammonemia. Both the priming and activation steps of NLRP3 inflammasome activation were processed in the hippocampus of BDL mice. Moreover, intracellular ROS levels increased in the hippocampus, and NLRP3 was mainly expressed in the microglia of the hippocampus. In LPS-primed BV-2 cells, ammonia treatment induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis, with elevation of mtROS and altered mitochondrial membrane potential. Pretreatment with Mito-TEMPO suppressed mtROS production and the subsequent NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis under LPS and ammonia treatment in BV-2 cells. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperammonemia in HE may be involved in mtROS overproduction and subsequent NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Further studies using NLRP3-specific inhibitor or NLRP3 knockout mice are needed to elucidate the important role of NLRP3 inflammasome in HE development.
Assuntos
Encefalopatia Hepática , Hiperamonemia , Animais , Camundongos , Inflamassomos , Proteína 3 que Contém Domínio de Pirina da Família NLR , Microglia/metabolismo , Encefalopatia Hepática/metabolismo , Lipopolissacarídeos/farmacologia , Lipopolissacarídeos/metabolismo , Hiperamonemia/metabolismo , Amônia/metabolismo , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Estresse OxidativoRESUMO
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic disease characterized by multiple pathologies. The progression of dementia with NAFLD may be affected by various risk factors, including brain insulin resistance, cerebrovascular dysfunction, gut dysbiosis, and neuroinflammation. Many recent studies have focused on the increasing prevalence of dementia in patients with NAFLD. Dementia is characterized by cognitive and memory deficits and has diverse subtypes, including vascular dementia, Alzheimer's dementia, and diabetes mellitus-induced dementia. Considering the common pathological features of NAFLD and dementia, further studies on the association between them are needed to find appropriate therapeutic solutions for diseases. This review summarizes the common pathological characteristics and mechanisms of NAFLD and dementia. Additionally, it describes recent evidence on association between NAFLD and dementia progression and provides novel perspectives with regard to the treatment of patients with dementia secondary to NAFLD.
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Background: Hyperammonemia can result in various neuropathologies, including sleep disturbance, memory loss, and motor dysfunction in hepatic encephalopathy. Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) as a group of noncoding RNA longer than 200 nucleotides is emerging as a promising therapeutic target to treat diverse diseases. Although lncRNAs have been linked to the pathogenesis of various diseases, their function in hepatic encephalopathy has not yet been elucidated. Research Design and Methods. To identify the roles of lncRNAs in hepatic encephalopathy brain, we used a bile duct ligation (BDL) mouse model and examined the alteration of neuronal cell death markers and neuronal structure-related proteins in BDL mouse cortex tissue. Furthermore, analysis of the transcriptome of BDL mouse brain cortex tissues revealed several lncRNAs critical to the apoptosis and neuronal structural changes associated with hepatic encephalopathy. Results: We confirmed the roles of the lncRNAs, ZFAS1, and GAS5 as strong candidate lncRNAs to regulate neuropathologies in hepatic encephalopathy. Our data revealed the roles of lncRNAs, ZFAS1, and GAS5, on neuronal cell death and neural structure in hyperammonemia in in vivo and in vitro conditions. Conclusion: Thus, we suggest that the modulation of these lncRNAs may be beneficial for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy.
Assuntos
Encefalopatia Hepática , Hiperamonemia , RNA Longo não Codificante , Animais , Ductos Biliares , Encefalopatia Hepática/genética , Encefalopatia Hepática/patologia , Hiperamonemia/complicações , Hiperamonemia/genética , Camundongos , Neurônios/metabolismo , RNA Longo não Codificante/genética , RNA Longo não Codificante/metabolismoRESUMO
Metabolic homeostasis is important for maintaining a healthy lifespan. Lipid metabolism is particularly necessary for the maintenance of metabolic energy sources and their storage, and the structure and function of cell membranes, as well as for the regulation of nutrition through lipogenesis, lipolysis, and lipophagy. Dysfunctional lipid metabolism leads to the development of metabolic disorders, such as atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Furthermore, dyslipidaemia causes inflammatory responses and foam cell formation. Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling is a key regulator of diverse cellular processes, including cell metabolism and cell fate. mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) is involved in lipid metabolism and immune responses in the body. Therefore, the mTORC1 signalling pathway has been suggested as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of metabolic disorders. In this review, we focus on the roles of mTORC1 in lipid metabolism and inflammation, and present current evidence on its involvement in the development and progression of metabolic disorders.
Assuntos
Inflamação/metabolismo , Metabolismo dos Lipídeos , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina/metabolismo , Doenças Metabólicas/metabolismo , Animais , Células Espumosas , Humanos , Inflamação/tratamento farmacológico , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina/antagonistas & inibidores , Doenças Metabólicas/tratamento farmacológico , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: The innate immune complex, an inflammasome complex, has a role in the etiology of psychiatric disorders. Preclinical studies have demonstrated that the inflammasome activation leads to psychiatric disorders and clinical studies have proved that specific psychiatric illnesses are associated with aberrant levels of inflammatory cytokines and inflammasome. The inflammasome complex could be a major factor in the progression and pathology of psychiatric disorders. AREA COVERED: We discuss the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders with respect to the activation of the inflammasome complex. Inflammasome-associated inflammatory cytokines are observed in patients and animal models of psychiatric disorders. The article also reflects on inflammasome regulatory options for the prevention and treatment of psychiatric disorders. Relevant literature available on PubMed from 1992 to 2021 has been included in this review. EXPERT OPINION: Modulating the inflammasome complex is a potential therapeutic strategy to treat symptom severity for patients with psychiatric disorders, particularly those with inflammasome-associated disorders. However, the nature of the psychiatric disorders should be considered when targeting inflammasome.
Assuntos
Inflamassomos , Transtornos Mentais , Animais , Citocinas , Humanos , Transtornos Mentais/terapiaRESUMO
Immune system is essential for host homeostasis. Immune cells communicate with each other by binding to receptors or by releasing vesicles including chemokines and cytokines. Under healthy circumstances, immune cell-derived factors are critical for cellular growth, division and function, whereas under conditions such as ageing and inflammatory states, they can aggravate pathologies and cause disease. Cell-derived membranous extracellular vesicles mediate cell-to-cell communication and are implicated in various physiological and pathological processes involving ageing and age-related diseases. Extracellular vesicles are responsible for spreading detrimental factors to the surroundings and the propagation phase of inflammatory diseases. The regulation of extracellular vesicles is a putative target for treatment of inflammatory diseases. Moreover, their features are ideal for developing biomarkers and drug delivery systems modulated by bioengineering in inflammatory diseases. The present review summarizes the current understanding of extracellular vesicles in ageing and inflammatory diseases.