High-resolution ultrasound approach to quadrangular joint in carpal boss: Everything musculoskeletal sonographer should know.

At the quadrangular joint (QAJ) of the carpus, a rare bony protuberance called carpal boss (CB) may occur. This bone abnormality may be due to osteophytes development or os styloideum. Symptomatic patients may complain pain, swelling, and restrictions in hand motion. These symptoms result from joint degenerative-inflammatory changes, development of ganglion cyst/bursitis, or tendons pathology. Correct diagnosis and appropriate management can be achieved through high-resolution ultrasonography (HR-US). The purpose of this review is to define the pathology spectrum around and within the QAJ in CB. The role of HR-US is highlighted and the standard technique for the QAJ assessment is described.

Paraneoplastic musculoskeletal disorders: review and update for radiologists.

Rheumatic paraneoplastic syndromes are rare syndromes that occur at distant sites from the underlying tumor and may involve the bones, joints, fasciae, muscles, or vessels. In the absence of a known tumor, early recognition of a rheumatic syndrome as paraneoplastic permits dedicated work-up for, and potentially early treatment of an occult malignancy. Although there is a continuously growing list of paraneoplastic rheumatic disorders, not all of these disorders have a well-established association with a neoplastic process. The goals of this article are to review the clinical characteristics, diagnostic work-up, and imaging findings of well-documented rheumatic paraneoplastic disorders.

Low-velocity, civilian firearm extremity injuries-review and update for radiologists.

Firearm injuries are a preventable epidemic in the USA. Extremities are commonly affected in gunshot injuries. Such injuries may be complex with concomitant osseous, soft tissue, and neurovascular components. The maximum wounding potential of a projectile is determined by its kinetic energy and the proportion of the kinetic energy that is transmitted to the target. Accurate assessment of ballistic injuries is dependent on utilizing the principles of wound ballistics, accurate bullet count, and ballistic trajectory analysis. The goals of this article are to review wound ballistics and the imaging evaluation of extremity civilian firearm injuries in the adult population, with emphasis on ballistic trajectory analysis, specific ballistic fracture patterns, and diffuse, secondary soft tissue ballistic injuries.

Surgical techniques for management of acromioclavicular joint separations: review and update for radiologists.

Imaging plays a central role in the postoperative management of acromioclavicular (AC) joint separations. There are more than 150 described techniques for the surgical management of AC joint injuries. These procedures can be categorized as varying combinations of the following basic techniques: a) soft-tissue repair, b) trans-articular AC joint fixation, c) coracoclavicular (CC) fixation, d) non-anatomic reconstruction of the CC ligaments, e) anatomic reconstruction of the CC ligaments, f) distal clavicle resection, and g) dynamic muscle transfer. The goals of this article are to describe the basic techniques for the surgical management of AC joint separations with an emphasis on technique-specific complications and postoperative imaging assessment.

External fixators: looking beyond the hardware maze.

External fixation has a wide variety of orthopedic applications. Although external fixator frames may have a complex appearance, these constructs are formed from several basic components and can be broadly categorized into unilateral, circular, or hybrid designs. The introduction of computer-aided circular external fixation devices (hexapod frames) has simplified the treatment of multiaxial and especially rotational deformities. Serial radiography plays a central role in the evaluation of callus formation (at the level of treated fracture or nonunion as well as the regenerate and docking site with distraction osteogenesis), tailoring the rate and rhythm of distraction during distraction osteogenesis, evaluation of frame complications, and determination of the timing of frame removal. The goals of this article are to review: the components, types, and relevant terminology of external fixator constructs with special emphasis on the Taylor spatial frame, the principles and techniques of distraction osteogenesis, and complications of external fixation.

The Relevance of Ulnar-Sided Contrast Extravasation During Radiocarpal Joint Wrist Arthrography.

OBJECTIVE: Contrast material often extends from the radiocarpal joint into the proximal soft tissues adjacent to the ulnar aspect of the ulnar styloid during single-compartment radiocarpal joint MR arthrography of the wrist. The hypothesis of this study was that this is a common finding unrelated to symptoms or examination technique. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Wrist MR arthrograms were retrospectively reviewed in consensus by two radiologists. The presence or absence of ulnar-sided contrast extravasation was documented, whether this extravasation appeared contained or dispersed, as was the overall degree of proximal extension of the extravasated contrast material. Patient age, sex, wrist sidedness, volume of contrast material administered, location of symptoms reported clinically, and aberrant contrast material also apparent within the midcarpal space or distal radioulnar joint on the MR images reviewed were documented to determine potential association with ulnar-sided contrast extravasation. RESULTS: Ninety-nine examinations met the inclusion criteria. Ulnar-sided contrast extravasation after single-compartment radiocarpal joint injection was present in 56 of the 99 wrists (57%). This finding was statistically more common in right versus left wrists. No other statistically significant associations were identified. CONCLUSION: Contrast extravasation along the ulnar aspect of the distal ulna after single-compartment radiocarpal joint injection is common. In this study it had no statistically significant association with the location of a patient's wrist pain or abnormal findings evaluated at MR arthrography.

Fragility fractures of the proximal femur: review and update for radiologists.

Proximal femoral fragility fractures are common and result in significant morbidity and mortality along with a considerable socioeconomic burden. The goals of this article are to review relevant proximal femoral anatomy together with imaging, classification, and management of proximal femoral fragility fractures, and their most common complications. Imaging plays an integral role in classification, management and follow-up of proximal femoral fragility fractures. Classification of proximal femoral fragility fractures is primarily based on anteroposterior hip radiographs. Pertinent imaging features for each category of proximal femoral fractures that would guide management are: differentiating nondisplaced from displaced femoral neck fractures, distinguishing stable from unstable intertrochanteric fractures, and determining the morphology and comminution of subtrochanteric fractures. Treatment of proximal femoral fragility fractures is primarily surgical with either arthroplasty or internal fixation. Intramedullary nailing is used in the treatment of some types of proximal femoral fragility fractures and may be associated with unique complications that become evident on postoperative follow-up radiographs.

Terrible triad injuries of the elbow.

Terrible triad injury of the elbow is a complex injury that is classically defined as elbow dislocation along with fractures of the coronoid process of the ulna and the radial head. The injury is usually associated with typical soft-tissue disruptions (with common involvement of the lateral collateral ligament complex, elbow joint capsule, as well as the common extensor and flexor-pronator tendons) that are best understood in the context of injury mechanism as well as the role and relevance of the various elbow stabilizers. The goals of this article are to review the pertinent anatomy, mechanism of injury, classification and imaging of terrible triad injuries of the elbow with brief descriptions of treatment, and complications of this complex injury.

The floating shoulder.

The floating shoulder refers to a subset of complex shoulder injuries that typically occur in the setting of high-energy trauma. Identification of the full extent of complex shoulder injuries with computed tomography may have critical implications in patient management. The goals of this article are to review the anatomy, definition, imaging evaluation, and treatment of floating shoulder injuries.

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion: review and update for radiologists.

OBJECTIVES: The goals of this article are to describe the various types of interbody grafts and anterior cervical plating systems, techniques for optimizing evaluation of cervical spine metallic implants on CT and MR imaging, expected appearance and complications of ACDF on postoperative imaging and imaging assessment of fusion. Optimization for optimizing metal induced artifacts. CONCLUSION: Currently, ACDF is the most commonly performed surgical procedure for degenerative cervical spine disease. Interbody fusion is performed with bone grafts or interbody spacers, and may be supplemented with anterior cervical plating. Compressive pathologies at the vertebral body level may be addressed by simultaneous corpectomy. Postoperatively, imaging plays an integral role in routine screening of asymptomatic individuals, fusion assessment and evaluation of complications.

Update on the operative treatment of scapholunate instability for radiologists. II. Salvage procedures, total wrist arthrodesis, and total wrist arthroplasty.

Scapholunate (SL) instability is the most common form of carpal instability. Imaging (especially radiography) plays an important role in the staging, management, and postoperative follow-up of SL instability. In the final stage of SL instability, known as scapholunate advanced collapse, progressive degenerative changes occur at the carpal level. The goals of this article are to review the surgical options available for addressing the different stages of scapholunate advanced collapse, along with an emphasis on normal postoperative imaging and complications associated with each surgical option.

Update on operative treatment of scapholunate (SL) instability for radiologists: part 1-SL ligament repair, dorsal capsulodesis and SL ligament reconstruction.

Scapholunate instability is the most common form of carpal instability. Imaging (especially radiography) plays an important role in the staging, management and post-operative follow-up of scapholunate (SL) instability. The goals of this article are to review the pre-operative staging of SL instability, the surgical options for repair and reconstruction of the SL ligament, along with the normal postoperative imaging findings as well as complications associated with these surgical options.

Prevalence of burnout among musculoskeletal radiologists.

OBJECTIVE: Burnout is a job-related psychological syndrome with three aspects: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and perceived lack of personal accomplishment. Burnout is associated with deleterious effects on both workers and their work. When burnout affects physicians, their well-being, longevity, and care of patients are at risk. Recent studies concerning physician burnout treat specialists such as radiologists as one group. We studied burnout in musculoskeletal (MSK) subspecialist radiologists. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An institutional review board exemption was obtained. Society of Skeletal Radiology members received invitations to an anonymous survey that included questions from the Maslach Burnout Inventory ™ (MBI) measuring all three aspects of burnout. The response rate was 36.4% (433/1190). RESULTS: The prevalence of emotional exhaustion was 61.7% (255/413), of depersonalization 53.3% (219/411), and of perceived lack of personal accomplishment 39.6% (161/407). Only 19.5% (79/405) of MSK radiologists reported no burnout, while 80.5% (326/405) reported burnout along one or more dimensions. For all three dimensions, the prevalence was higher and the mean severity was worse for private practice compared with academic practice. The prevalence of burnout was affected more by practice setting than by gender. Burnout prevalence and severity also varied systematically with years since completion of training. CONCLUSION: Among MSK radiologists, we found a much higher prevalence and greater severity of burnout than has been previously reported for radiologists and other physicians. There were differences in prevalence and severity of burnout among practice settings, genders, and longevity cohorts.

Pathologies of the shoulder and elbow affecting the overhead throwing athlete.

The overhead-throwing athlete is susceptible to a variety of predictable disease entities affecting the shoulder and elbow. While the pathophysiology and nomenclature of these diseases are ubiquitous throughout the clinical literature, this information is sparse within the radiology domain. We provide a comprehensive review of these unique injuries with accompanying imaging features in an effort to enhance the role of the radiologist during the management of the overhead thrower. When appropriately recognized and described, the imaging features aid in establishing a diagnosis and ultimately the implementation of appropriate clinical management.

Case 228: Mueller-Weiss Disease.

History A 53-year-old woman presented to the hospital for evaluation of progressive long-standing left dorsomedial foot pain, which was made worse with weight bearing. There was no history of trauma. Prior assessments were performed at another facility, and she did not to respond to conservative therapy. History was negative for systemic disorders. Physical examination revealed tenderness over the left talonavicular joint and flattening of the medial arch of the left foot. Otherwise, the findings were unremarkable. A basic serum chemistry test and complete blood count revealed no abnormal findings. The patient underwent routine weight-bearing radiography of her left foot and weight-bearing computed tomography (CT) of both feet.

Understanding carpal instability: a radiographic perspective.

The wrist is disposed to a variety of instability patterns owing to its complex anatomical and biomechanical properties. Various classification schemes have been proposed to describe the different patterns of carpal instability, of which the Mayo classification is the most commonly used. Understanding the concepts and pertinent terminology of this classification scheme is important for the correct interpretation of images and optimal communication with referring physicians. Standard wrist radiographs are the first line of imaging in carpal instability. Additional information may be obtained with the use of stress radiographs and other imaging modalities.

Current Concepts in Total Ankle Replacement for Radiologists: Complications.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to review current concepts of total ankle replacement from an imaging perspective. The emphasis is on the reported complications and their imaging features in relation to current understanding of how and why these failures occur. CONCLUSION: Total ankle replacement has become mainstream surgical treatment of disabling ankle arthritis. With the many types of prostheses available for sale in the United States, rapid growth in the number of procedures can be expected with concomitant growth in the number of complications. Knowledge gained through experience with the more common hip and knee prostheses can generally be applied to ankle prostheses. Some complications are unique to the ankle, and some are unique to specific ankle prostheses.

Current Concepts in Total Ankle Replacement for Radiologists: Features and Imaging Assessment.

OBJECTIVE: This article reviews the current concepts of total ankle replacement (TAR). The features of traditional and new prosthetic designs, materials, and surgical techniques are discussed. Normal postoperative imaging findings are illustrated. CONCLUSION: TAR is becoming a mainstream treatment of end-stage ankle arthritis. Although the results after TAR have not reached the same level as those for hip arthroplasty and knee arthroplasty, the revision rates show that this form of therapy is rational and promising. For this reason, assessment of postoperative imaging is important. The foundation of the radiologic interpretation of TAR is knowledge of the physiologic purpose, orthopedic trends, imaging findings, and complications.

The anterolateral ligament of the knee: MRI appearance, association with the Segond fracture, and historical perspective.

OBJECTIVE. A recent publication has drawn attention to the anterolateral ligament, a structure of the knee with which most radiologists are unfamiliar. We evaluate this structure on MRI; clarify its origin, insertion, meniscal relationship, and morphologic appearance; and identify its relationship with the Segond fracture. MATERIALS AND METHODS. A total of 53 routine knee MRI studies interpreted as normal were reviewed to characterize the anterolateral ligament. A further 20 knee MRI studies with a Segond fracture were assessed to determine a relationship between the fracture and the anterolateral ligament. RESULTS. In all 53 cases, a structure was present along the lateral knee connecting the distal femur to the proximal tibia, with meniscofemoral and meniscotibial components. This structure was somewhat ill defined and sheetlike, inseparable from the adjacent fibular collateral ligament proximally and iliotibial band distally. Aside from one case limited by anatomic distortion, all cases with a Segond fracture exhibited attachment of this structure to the fracture fragment (19/20 cases). CONCLUSION. An ill-defined sheetlike structure along the lateral knee exists attaching the distal femur, body of lateral meniscus, and proximal tibia. This structure has been referenced in the literature dating back to Paul Segond's original description of the Segond fracture in 1879. The structure is identifiable on MRI and appears to be attached to the Segond fracture fragment. For the radiologist, it may be best to forgo an attempt to separate this structure into discrete divisions, such as the anterolateral ligament, because these individual components are inseparable on routine MRI.

Digital Tomosynthesis to Evaluate Fracture Healing: Prospective Comparison With Radiography and CT.

OBJECTIVE: Radiography, currently the standard for postoperative fracture imaging, is limited by overlapping bone and hardware. Tomosynthesis has the benefit of level-by-level imaging without the disadvantages of metal artifacts, increased radiation, and higher costs of CT, the current problem-solving tool. The purpose of this study was to compare tomosynthesis with radiography for evaluating fracture healing. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: In a prospective study, patients within 1 year of wrist hardware fixation underwent radiography, tomosynthesis, and CT, and the images were interpreted by three readers. The diagnostic accuracy of radiology and tomosynthesis was assessed with ROC curves, and interreader agreement was assessed with Cohen kappa. Fracture scores were correlated with Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) and pain scores. RESULTS: The study participants were 49 patients with 51 fractures. The most common fracture sites were distal radius (43%), scaphoid (18%), and metacarpals (18%). Rates of cortex obscuration by hardware were 2% for CT, 8% for tomosynthesis, and 15% for radiography (p < 0.01 between one modality and another). Detection of cortical fracture lines was significantly better with tomosynthesis than with radiography (AUC, 0.84 vs 0.76, p = 0.01). Inter-reader agreement was moderate for both radiography and tomosynthesis (κ = 0.44 vs 0.55, p = 0.051). There was no significant correlation between fracture scores and DASH scores. There was significant correlation between reported pain levels and both tomosynthesis (r = 0.28, p = 0.03) and CT (r = 0.29, p = 0.04) fracture scores. CONCLUSION: Tomosynthesis provides diagnostic information superior to that of ra diography in postoperative evaluation of wrist fractures with lower cost and radiation than CT and should be considered in fracture follow-up imaging of other bones.