Nuclear F-actin formation and reorganization upon cell spreading.

We recently discovered signal-regulated nuclear actin network assembly. However, in contrast to cytoplasmic actin regulation, polymeric nuclear actin structures and functions remain only poorly understood. Here we describe a novel molecular tool to visualize real-time nuclear actin dynamics by targeting the Actin-Chromobody-TagGFP to the nucleus, thus establishing a nuclear Actin-Chromobody. Interestingly, we observe nuclear actin polymerization into dynamic filaments upon cell spreading and fibronectin stimulation, both of which appear to be triggered by integrin signaling. Furthermore, we show that nucleoskeletal proteins such as the LINC (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) complex and components of the nuclear lamina couple cell spreading or integrin activation by fibronectin to nuclear actin polymerization. Spreading-induced nuclear actin polymerization results in serum response factor (SRF)-mediated transcription through nuclear retention of myocardin-related transcription factor A (MRTF-A). Our results reveal a signaling pathway, which links integrin activation by extracellular matrix interaction to nuclear actin polymerization through the LINC complex, and therefore suggest a role for nuclear actin polymerization in the context of cellular adhesion and mechanosensing.

Heterotrimeric Gi proteins link Hedgehog signaling to activation of Rho small GTPases to promote fibroblast migration.

Evidence supporting the functionality of Smoothened (SMO), an essential transducer in most pathways engaged by Hedgehog (Hh), as a G(i)-coupled receptor contrasts with the lack of an apparently consistent requirement for G(i) in Hh signal transduction. In the present study, we sought to evaluate the role of SMO-G(i) coupling in fibroblast migration induced by Sonic Hedgehog (Shh). Our results demonstrate an absolute requirement for G(i) in Shh-induced fibroblast migration. We found that Shh acutely stimulates the small Rho GTPases Rac1 and RhoA via SMO through a G(i) protein- and PI3K-dependent mechanism, and that these are required for cell migration. These responses were independent of transcription by Gli and of the C-terminal domain of SMO, as we show using a combination of molecular and genetic tools. Our findings provide a mechanistic model for fibroblast migration in response to Shh and underscore the role of SMO-G(i) coupling in non-canonical Hh signaling.

Purification and bioassay of hedgehog ligands for the study of cell death and survival.

The Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted ligands-composed of Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), Indian Hedgehog (Ihh), and Desert Hedgehog (Dhh)-possesses many roles during embryonic development, adult homeostasis, and cancer. The specific functions of the Hh proteins are intertwined with their requirement as survival factors in Hh-responsive cells. However, studies designed to dissect the anti-apoptotic role of Hhs have been hindered by the lack of simple approaches to purify large quantities of recombinant ligands in the average laboratory setting because of the natural modifications of these proteins with palmitic acid and cholesterol. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive protocol for the expression of Shh, Ihh, and Dhh in Escherichia coli as fusion proteins with calmodulin-binding peptide to allow easy and rapid purification. The ligands are engineered with a new N-terminus containing two isoleucine residues to provide an essential hydrophobic interphase for achieving high biologic activity. The protocol includes a detailed description of a method for determination of the specific activity of the generated proteins by use of a cell culture-based luciferase approach.

Patched-1 proapoptotic activity is downregulated by modification of K1413 by the E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase Itchy homolog.

The Hedgehog (Hh) receptor Patched-1 (PTCH1) opposes the activation of Gli transcription factors and induces cell death through a Gli-independent pathway. Here, we report that the C-terminal domain (CTD) of PTCH1 interacts with and is ubiquitylated on K1413 by the E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase Itchy homolog (Itch), a Nedd4 family member. Itch induces the ubiquitylation of K1413, the reduction of PTCH1 levels at the plasma membrane, and degradation, activating Gli transcriptional activity in the absence of Hh ligands. Silencing of Itch stabilizes PTCH1 and increases its level of retention at the plasma membrane. Itch is the preferential PTCH1 E3 ligase in the absence of Hh ligands, since of the other seven Nedd4 family members, only WW domain-containing protein 2 (WWP2) showed a minor redundant role. Like Itch depletion, mutation of the ubiquitylation site (K1314R) resulted in the accumulation of PTCH1 at the plasma membrane, prolongation of its half-life, and increased cell death by hyperactivation of caspase-9. Remarkably, Itch is the main determinant of PTCH1 stability under resting conditions but not in response to Sonic Hedgehog. In conclusion, our findings reveal that Itch is a key regulator of ligand-independent Gli activation and noncanonical Hh signaling by the governance of basal PTCH1 internalization and degradation.

Sonic Hedgehog activates the GTPases Rac1 and RhoA in a Gli-independent manner through coupling of smoothened to Gi proteins.

The vertebrate Hedgehog (Hh) pathway has essential functions during development and tissue homeostasis in normal physiology, and its dysregulation is a common theme in cancer. The Hh ligands (Sonic Hh, Indian Hh, and Desert Hh) bind to the receptors Patched1 and Patched2, resulting in inhibition of their repressive effect on Smoothened (Smo). Smo is a seven-transmembrane protein, which was only recently shown to function as a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) with specificity toward the heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(i). In addition to activating G(i), Smo signals through its C-terminal tail to inhibit Suppressor of Fused, resulting in stabilization and activation of the Gli family of transcription factors, which execute a transcriptional response to so-called "canonical Hh signaling." In this Presentation, we illustrate two outcomes of Hh signaling that are independent of Gli transcriptional activity and, thus, are defined as "noncanonical." One outcome is dependent on Smo coupling to G(i) proteins and exerts changes to the actin cytoskeleton through stimulation of the small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) RhoA and Rac1. These cytoskeletal changes promote migration in fibroblasts and tubulogenesis in endothelial cells. Signaling through the other noncanonical Hh pathway is independent of Smo and inhibits Patched1-induced cell death.

Hedgehog proteins activate pro-angiogenic responses in endothelial cells through non-canonical signaling pathways.

The Hedgehog (Hh) pathway orchestrates developmental and homeostatic angiogenesis. the three Hh isoforms--Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), Indian Hedgehog (Ihh) and Desert Hedgehog (Dhh)--signal through patched-1 (ptCH1) and Smoothened (SMo), to activate the Gli transcription factors with a characteristic rank of potency (Shh >> Ihh > Dhh). To dissect the mechanisms through which Hh proteins promote angiogenesis, we analyzed processes inherent to vessel formation in endothelial cells. We found that none of the Hh ligands were able to induce Gli-target genes in human umbilical vein (HUVeC) or human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (HMVeC), suggesting that endothelial cells do not respond to Hh through the canonical pathway. However, our results show that the three Hh proteins promote endothelial cell tubulogenesis in 3D cultures in a SMo- and Gi protein-dependent manner. Consistent with the required cytoskeletal re-arrangement for tubulogenesis, Shh, Ihh and Dhh all stimulated the small GTPase RhoA and the formation of actin stress fibers. This effect, which was mediated by SMO, Gi proteins and Rac1, defines a new non-canonical Hh pathway. In addition to regulating the actin cytoskeleton, the Hh ligands promoted survival through inhibition of the pro-apoptotic effect of PTCH1 in a SMO-independent manner. Altogether, our results support the existence of Gli-independent Hh responses in endothelial cells that regulate tubulogenesis and apoptosis. The identification of novel non-canonical responses elicited by Hh proteins in endothelial cells highlights the complexity of the Hh signaling pathway and reveals striking differences in ligand strength for transcriptional and non-transcriptional responses