Investigating adverse daily life effects following a psychosocial laboratory stress task, and the moderating role of Psychopathology.

Laboratory stress tasks are necessary to closely investigate the stress response in a controlled environment. However, to our knowledge, no study has tested whether participating in such tasks can pose any daily life adverse effect. Fifty-three healthy participants (46 women) took part in a laboratory session where stress was induced using a typical psychosocial stressor: the repeated Montreal Imaging Stress Task (rMIST). Average levels of negative affect (NA), heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), and skin conductance level (SCL), as well as reactivity across all these parameters as measured with the experience sampling method (ESM) in the four days prior to the laboratory session were compared with the four days following the session. We also assessed whether vulnerability to psychopathology moderated these associations. Findings showed that the task did not pose any significant adverse effect on participants. However, there was an unexpected increase in average RMSSD and a decrease in average SCL pre- to post- task. In addition, more vulnerable individuals were more likely to experience an increase in average levels of NA in the days following the task compared to the days preceding it. Our findings suggest that laboratory stress tasks may pose a significant risk to more vulnerable individuals.

Exploring the role of OXTR gene methylation in attachment development: A longitudinal study.

The current study explored longitudinally whether oxytocin receptor gene methylation (OXTRm) changes moderated the association between parental sensitivity changes and children's attachment changes over three waves. Six hundred six Flemish children (10-12 years, 42.8%-44.8% boys) completed attachment measures and provided salivary OXTRm data on seven CpG sites. Their parents reported their sensitive parenting. Results suggest that OXTRm changes hardly link to attachment (in)security changes after the age of 10. Some support was found for interaction effects between parental sensitivity changes and OXTRm changes on attachment changes over time. Effects suggest that for children with increased OXTRm in the promotor region and decreased methylation in the inhibitor region over time, increased parental sensitivity was associated with increased secure attachment and decreased insecure attachment over time.

At the Head and Heart of Oxytocin's Stress-Regulatory Neural and Cardiac Effects: A Chronic Administration RCT in Children with Autism.

INTRODUCTION: Intranasal administration of oxytocin presents a promising new approach to reduce disability associated with an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis. Previous investigations have emphasized the amygdala as the neural foundation for oxytocin's acute effects. However, to fully understand oxytocin's therapeutic potential, it is crucial to gain insight into the neuroplastic changes in amygdala circuitry induced from chronic oxytocin administrations, particularly in pediatric populations. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to examine the impact of a 4-week course of intranasal oxytocin on amygdala functional connectivity in children with autism, compared to placebo. Additionally, we investigated whether oxytocin improves cardiac autonomic arousal, as indexed by high-frequency heart rate variability. METHODS: Fifty-seven children with autism aged 8-12 years (45 boys, 12 girls) participated in a double-blind, randomized pharmaco-neuroimaging trial involving twice-daily administrations of intranasal oxytocin or placebo. Resting-state fMRI scans and simultaneous, in-scanner heart rate recordings were obtained before, immediately after, and 4 weeks after the nasal spray administration period. RESULTS: Significant reductions in intrinsic amygdala-orbitofrontal connectivity were observed, particularly at the 4-week follow-up session. These reductions were correlated with improved social symptoms and lower cardiac autonomic arousal. Further, oxytocin's neural and cardiac autonomic effects were modulated by epigenetic modifications of the oxytocin receptor gene. The effects were more pronounced in children with reduced epigenetic methylation, signifying heightened expression of the oxytocin receptor. CONCLUSION: These findings underscore that a 4-week oxytocin administration course decreases amygdala connectivity and improves cardiac autonomic balance. Epigenetic modulators may explain inter-individual variation in responses to oxytocin.

COVID-19 is having a destructive impact on health-care workers' mental well-being.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may aggravate workplace conditions that impact health-care workers' mental health. However, it can also place other stresses on workers outside of their work. This study determines the effect of COVID-19 on symptoms of negative and positive mental health and the workforce's experience with various sources of support. Effect modification by demographic variables was also studied. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey study, conducted between 2 April and 4 May 2020 (two waves), led to a convenience sample of 4509 health-care workers in Flanders (Belgium), including paramedics (40.6%), nurses (33.4%), doctors (13.4%) and management staff (12.2%). About three in four were employed in university and acute hospitals (29.6%), primary care practices (25.7%), residential care centers (21.3%) or care sites for disabled and mental health care. In each of the two waves, participants were asked how frequently (on a scale of 0-10) they experienced positive and negative mental health symptoms during normal circumstances and during last week, referred to as before and during COVID-19, respectively. These symptoms were stress, hypervigilance, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, unable to relax, fear, irregular lifestyle, flashback, difficulty concentrating, feeling unhappy and dejected, failing to recognize their own emotional response, doubting knowledge and skills and feeling uncomfortable within the team. Associations between COVID-19 and mental health symptoms were estimated by cumulative logit models and reported as odds ratios. The needed support was our secondary outcome and was reported as the degree to which health-care workers relied on sources of support and how they experienced them. RESULTS: All symptoms were significantly more pronounced during versus before COVID-19. For hypervigilance, there was a 12-fold odds (odds ratio 12.24, 95% confidence interval 11.11-13.49) during versus before COVID-19. Positive professional symptoms such as the feeling that one can make a difference were less frequently experienced. The association between COVID-19 and mental health was generally strongest for the age group 30-49 years, females, nurses and residential care centers. Health-care workers reported to rely on support from relatives and peers. A considerable proportion, respectively, 18 and 27%, reported the need for professional guidance from psychologists and more support from their leadership. CONCLUSIONS: The toll of the crisis has been heavy on health-care workers. Those who carry leadership positions at an organizational or system level should take this opportunity to develop targeted strategies to mitigate key stressors of health-care workers' mental well-being.

Investigating the stress-related fluctuations of level of personality functioning: A critical review and agenda for future research.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) proposed a dimensional approach to the assessment of personality disorders (PDs). Both models dictate that the clinician first determines PD severity before assessing maladaptive traits, invoking the level of personality functioning (LPF) construct. We consider LPF a promising dimensional construct for translational research because of its clinical importance and conceptual overlap with the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Social Processes. We aim to identify biomarkers that co-vary with fluctuations in LPF in adulthood, ultimately to predict persistent decrease in LPF, associated with suicidality and morbidity. However, a theoretical framework to investigate stress-related oscillations in LPF is currently missing. In this article, we aim to fill this hiatus with a critical review about stress and LPF. First, we discuss acute stress and LPF. We briefly present the basics of the neurophysiological stress response and review the literature on momentary and daily fluctuations in LPF, both at a subjective and physiological level. Second, we review the effects of chronic stress on brain function and social behaviour and recapitulate the main findings from prospective cohort studies. This review underlies our suggestions for multimethod assessment of stress-related oscillations in LPF and our theoretical framework for future longitudinal studies, in particular studies using the experience sampling method (ESM).

Depression and suicidality: A link to premature T helper cell aging and increased Th17 cells.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has demonstrated a strong link between immune system abnormalities and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). High suicide risk is a major complication of MDD and has recently been linked to strong (neuro-)immune alterations, but little is known on the link between circulating immune cell composition and suicidal risk status. METHODS: Here, we assessed percentages of circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells with focus on T helper cell subsets (memory T helper cells, Th1, Th2, Th17 and T regulatory cells) in a large and well-matched cohort of 153 patients diagnosed with MDD and 153 age and sex matched controls. We explored the association of these cell populations with suicide risk while accounting for age, sex, BMI, depression severity and childhood trauma. RESULTS: Patients with MDD had reduced percentages of NK cells, and higher percentages of B and T cells in line with current literature. Further exploration of T-cells revealed a robustly elevated number of memory T helper cells, regardless of age group. Patients at high risk for suicide had the highest memory T helper cells and additionally showed a robust increase of Th17 cells compared to other suicide risk groups. CONCLUSIONS: The higher abundance of memory T helper cells points towards premature aging of the immune system in MDD patients, even during young adulthood. Patients at high risk for suicide show the clearest immune abnormalities and may represent a clinically relevant subtype of depression.

Relationship Between Chronic Stress and Heart Rate Over Time Modulated by Gender in a Cohort of Office Workers: Cross-Sectional Study Using Wearable Technologies.

BACKGROUND: Chronic stress is increasing in prevalence and is associated with several physical and mental disorders. Although it is proven that acute stress changes physiology, much less is known about the relationship between physiology and long-term stress. Continuous measurement of vital signs in daily life and chronic stress detection algorithms could serve this purpose. For this, it is paramount to model the effects of chronic stress on human physiology and include other cofounders, such as demographics, enabling the enrichment of a population-wide approach with individual variations. OBJECTIVE: The main objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of chronic stress on heart rate (HR) over time while correcting for weekdays versus weekends and to test a possible modulation effect by gender and age in a healthy cohort. METHODS: Throughout 2016 and 2017, healthy employees of technology companies were asked to participate in a 5-day observation stress study. They were required to wear two wearables, of which one included an electrocardiogram sensor. The derived HR was averaged per hour and served as an output for a mixed design model including a trigonometric fit over time with four harmonics (periods of 24, 12, 8, and 6 hours), gender, age, whether it was a workday or weekend day, and a chronic stress score derived from the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) as predictors. RESULTS: The study included 328 subjects, of which 142 were female and 186 were male participants, with a mean age of 38.9 (SD 10.2) years and a mean PSS score of 13.7 (SD 6.0). As main effects, gender (χ21=24.02, P<.001); the hour of the day (χ21=73.22, P<.001); the circadian harmonic (χ22=284.4, P<.001); and the harmonic over 12 hours (χ22=242.1, P<.001), over 8 hours (χ22=23.78, P<.001), and over 6 hours (χ22=82.96, P<.001) had a significant effect on HR. Two three-way interaction effects were found. The interaction of age, whether it was a workday or weekend day, and the circadian harmonic over time were significantly correlated with HR (χ22=7.13, P=.03), as well as the interaction of gender, PSS score, and the circadian harmonic over time (χ22=7.59, P=.02). CONCLUSIONS: The results show a relationship between HR and the three-way interaction of chronic stress, gender, and the circadian harmonic. The modulation by gender might be related to evolution-based energy utilization strategies, as suggested in related literature studies. More research, including daily cortisol assessment, longer recordings, and a wider population, should be performed to confirm this interpretation. This would enable the development of more complete and personalized models of chronic stress.

A SNP, Gene, and Polygenic Risk Score Approach of Oxytocin-Vasopressin Genes in Adolescents' Loneliness.

Not much is known regarding underlying biological pathways to adolescents' loneliness. Insight in underlying molecular mechanisms could inform intervention efforts aimed at reducing loneliness. Using latent growth curve modeling, baseline levels and development of loneliness were studied in two longitudinal adolescent samples. Genes (OXTR, OXT, AVPR1A, AVPR1B) were examined using SNP-based, gene-based, and polygenic risk score (PRS) approaches. In both samples, SNP- and gene-based tests showed involvement of the OXTR gene in development of loneliness, though, significance levels did not survive correction for multiple testing. The PRS approach provided no evidence for relations with loneliness. We recommend alternative phenotyping methods, including environmental factors, to consider epigenetic studies, and to examine possible endophenotypes in relation to adolescents' loneliness.

Heart rate and high frequency heart rate variability during stress as biomarker for clinical depression. A systematic review.

The interaction of physical and mental vulnerability and environmental constraints is thought to foster the development of psychiatric disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD). A central factor in the development of psychopathology is mental stress. Despite some evidence for parasympathetic withdrawal and sympathetic overactivity in MDD, the psychophysiological response to stress in depression is not clear-cut. Given the growing interest in heart rate and heart rate variability as indicators for remote monitoring of patients, it is important to understand how patients with MDD react to stress in a laboratory-controlled environment. We conducted a systematic review of studies using electrocardiography to derive heart rate and heart rate variability during stress in patients with clinical depression. We focused on well-validated stress tasks- the mental arithmetic stress task, the Trier social stress task and public speaking task- to minimize confounding effects due to the nature of the stressor. The majority of studies found hypo-reactivity during stress as a hallmark of depression as evidenced by lower fluctuation in heart rate and heart rate variability in the high-frequency band. We address the potential underlying biological mechanisms, the influence of covariates on these measures and briefly discuss the specificity and potential for remote monitoring by using these variables.

Cortisol and Subjective Stress Responses to Acute Psychosocial Stress in Fibromyalgia Patients and Control Participants.

OBJECTIVE: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction may play a role in fibromyalgia (FM) pathogenesis but it remains understudied in this disorder. Furthermore, early childhood adversities (ECA) are common in FM, but whether they moderate stress reactivity is unknown. Hence, we investigated cortisol and subjective responses to acute psychosocial stress in FM and controls, while adjusting for ECA. METHODS: Twenty-seven female FM patients and 24 age-matched female controls were recruited in a tertiary care center and through advertisements, respectively. The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire was used to measure ECA history. Salivary cortisol levels and subjective stress ratings were measured at multiple time points before and after the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was administered. RESULTS: Significant main effects of group [F(1,43) = 7.04, p = .011, lower in FM] and ECA [F(1,43) = 5.18, p = .028, higher in participants with ECA] were found for cortisol responses. When excluding controls with ECA (n = 5), a significant group-by-time interaction was found [F(6,39) = 2.60, p = .032], driven by a blunted response to the stressor in FM compared with controls (p = .037). For subjective stress responses, a significant main effect of group [F(1,45) = 10.69, p = .002, higher in FM] and a trend toward a group-by-time interaction effect [F(6,45) = 2.05, p = .078, higher in FM 30 minutes before and 30 and 75 minutes after the TSST, and impaired recovery (difference immediately after - 30 minutes after the TSST) in FM] were found. CONCLUSIONS: Blunted cortisol responsivity to the TSST was observed in FM patients compared with controls without ECA. FM patients had higher subjective stress levels compared with controls, particularly at baseline and during recovery from the TSST. In FM patients, ECA history was not associated with cortisol or subjective stress levels or with responsivity to the TSST. Future research should investigate the mechanisms underlying hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in FM.

A pilot study on immuno-psychiatry in the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: A role for Th17 cells in psychosis?

BACKGROUND: A growing body of evidence supports a role for immune alterations in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (SSD). A high prevalence (25-40%) of SSD has been found in patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS), which is known for T-cell deficits due to thymus hypoplasia. This study is the first to explore the association between the T-cell subsets and psychotic symptoms in adults with 22q11.2DS. METHODS: 34 individuals (aged 19-38 yrs.) with 22q11.2DS and 34 healthy age- and gender matched control individuals were included. FACS analysis of the blood samples was performed to define T-cell subsets. Ultra-high risk for psychosis or diagnosis of SSD was determined based on CAARMS interviews and DSM-5 criteria for SSD. Positive psychotic symptom severity was measured based on the PANSS positive symptoms subscale. RESULTS: A partial T-cell immune deficiency in 22q11.2DS patients was confirmed by significantly reduced percentages of circulating T and T-helper cells. Significantly higher percentages of inflammatory Th1, Th17, and memory T-helper cells were found in adults with 22q11.2DS. Most importantly an increased Th17 percentage was found in adults with psychotic symptoms as compared to non-psychotic adults with 22q11.2DS, and Th17 percentage were related to the presence of positive psychotic symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Given the literature on the role of T cells and in particular of Th17 cells and IL-17 in hippocampus development, cognition and behavior, these results support the hypothesis for a role of Th17 cells in the development and/or regulation of psychotic symptoms in 22q11.2DS. This pilot study underlines the importance to further study the role of T-cell defects and of Th17 cells in the development of psychiatric symptoms. It also supports the possibility to use 22q11.2DS as a model to study T-cell involvement in the development of SSD.

Parental psychological control, adolescent self-criticism, and adolescent depressive symptoms: A latent change modeling approach in Belgian adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: At the level of both between-person differences and within-person changes across time, parental achievement-oriented psychological control may influence the development of adolescent self-criticism, which in turn may increase vulnerability for adolescent depression. METHOD: In a two-wave prospective study of 368 adolescents (age 13-17 years), Latent Change Modeling was used with Belgian adolescents' self-report measures. RESULTS: For mothers and fathers separately, adolescent self-criticism intervened in associations between achievement-oriented psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms, at the level of both between-person differences and within-person changes. When investigating parents simultaneously, only maternal parenting was related directly and indirectly to adolescent depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Our results underscore the importance of personality-related vulnerability in associations between the parenting environment and symptoms of psychopathology during adolescent development.

High prevalence of fatigue in adults with a 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is a microdeletion syndrome with high phenotypic variability, including somatic disorders like congenital heart disease and psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and mood disorders. Clinical observations suggest that many patients with 22q11.2DS suffer from severe fatigue. However, to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has investigated the potential association between 22q11.2DS and fatigue. Twenty-nine patients (mean age 26.8, 18-38 y) with 22q11.2DS completed the multidimensional fatigue inventory (MFI) measuring severity of fatigue. The results of the study group were compared with published population norms. In addition, cross-sectional associations between fatigue, depression (Beck Depression Inventory-BDI), and a quality of life questionnaire (WHO) in patients with 22q11.2 DS were examined. Subscales and total MFI scores were significantly higher in adults with 22q11.2DS. Approximately 80% of the study group had a total MFI score above the mean of the norms. A significant correlation between depressive symptoms and fatigue was found. Fatigue was also significantly associated with quality of life scores, specifically the general score, psychological health, and environment. This is the first report of high levels of fatigue in adults with the 22q11.2DS. Fatigue is a frequent complaint in this age group and should get the necessary attention given its association with quality of life and depression severity. Taking into account the multisystem nature of the 22q11.2DS, we recommend a systematic clinical examination to exclude underlying somatic or psychiatric causes of fatigue. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Gene-based interaction analysis shows GABAergic genes interacting with parenting in adolescent depressive symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Most gene-environment interaction studies (G × E) have focused on single candidate genes. This approach is criticized for its expectations of large effect sizes and occurrence of spurious results. We describe an approach that accounts for the polygenic nature of most psychiatric phenotypes and reduces the risk of false-positive findings. We apply this method focusing on the role of perceived parental support, psychological control, and harsh punishment in depressive symptoms in adolescence. METHODS: Analyses were conducted on 982 adolescents of Caucasian origin (Mage (SD) = 13.78 (.94) years) genotyped for 4,947 SNPs in 263 genes, selected based on a literature survey. The Leuven Adolescent Perceived Parenting Scale (LAPPS) and the Parental Behavior Scale (PBS) were used to assess perceived parental psychological control, harsh punishment, and support. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was the outcome. We used gene-based testing taking into account linkage disequilibrium to identify genes containing SNPs exhibiting an interaction with environmental factors yielding a p-value per single gene. Significant results at the corrected p-value of p < 1.90 × 10-4 were examined in an independent replication sample of Dutch adolescents (N = 1354). RESULTS: Two genes showed evidence for interaction with perceived support: GABRR1 (p = 4.62 × 10-5 ) and GABRR2 (p = 9.05 × 10-6 ). No genes interacted significantly with psychological control or harsh punishment. Gene-based analysis was unable to confirm the interaction of GABRR1 or GABRR2 with support in the replication sample. However, for GABRR2, but not GABRR1, the correlation of the estimates between the two datasets was significant (r (46) = .32; p = .027) and a gene-based analysis of the combined datasets supported GABRR2 × support interaction (p = 1.63 × 10-4 ). CONCLUSIONS: We present a gene-based method for gene-environment interactions in a polygenic context and show that genes interact differently with particular aspects of parenting. This accentuates the importance of polygenic approaches and the need to accurately assess environmental exposure in G × E.

Externalizing Problem Behavior in Adolescence: Parenting Interacting With DAT1 and DRD4 Genes.

This study extends previous gene-by-environment (G × E) research through design and methodological advances and examines alternative hypotheses of diathesis stress, vantage sensitivity, and differential susceptibility. In a sample of 984 adolescents and their parents, we examined whether effects of parental support, proactive, punitive, harsh punitive, and psychological control on externalizing problem behavior are moderated by adolescents' genotype for the dopamine transporter (DAT1) or receptor D4 (DRD4) gene. Results provided evidence for main effects of parenting behavior and DRD4, and multiple interaction effects of which one survived Bonferroni correction. Adolescents carrying a long DRD4 variant were more susceptible to the effects of parental proactive control on aggression, for better and for worse. Critical considerations were made regarding the complexity of G × E research.

Differential Effects of Inflammatory and Psychosocial Stress on Mood, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis, and Inflammation in Remitted Depression.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is highly recurrent. This may be due to increased stress sensitivity after remission. Both inflammatory and psychosocial stressors are implicated in the pathogenesis of MDD, but the additive or differential effect is unclear. METHODS: We conducted a single-blind placebo-controlled study to investigate the effects of inflammatory stress (i.e., typhoid vaccination), psychosocial stress (i.e., Trier Social Stress Test [TSST]), or a combination of both in women (25-45 years old) with (partially) remitted recurrent MDD (n = 21) and healthy female controls (n = 18). We evaluated the effect on mood measured by the Profile of Mood States, markers of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, and inflammatory system activation. The study was performed during 2 testing days, separated by a washout of 7-14 days. In a crossover design, subjects received one of the interventions on one day and placebo on the other. RESULTS: A lowering of mood was seen in patients (ß [95% CI] = -4.79 [-6.82 to -2.75], p < 0.001) only after vaccination, but not after the TSST or the combination; this effect was not observed in controls. Controls experienced a significantly different response on adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) after vaccination, with a general rise in ACTH not observed in patients. In both groups, the TSST activated the HPA axis and suppressed the inflammatory parameters. CONCLUSIONS: There is a differential effect of inflammatory and psychosocial stress on mood and HPA axis activation in patients with remitted recurrent MDD. This may be an interesting treatment target in MDD.

The role of intergenerational similarity and parenting in adolescent self-criticism: An actor-partner interdependence model.

Research investigating the development of adolescent self-criticism has typically focused on the role of either parental self-criticism or parenting. This study used an actor-partner interdependence model to examine an integrated theoretical model in which achievement-oriented psychological control has an intervening role in the relation between parental and adolescent self-criticism. Additionally, the relative contribution of both parents and the moderating role of adolescent gender were examined. Participants were 284 adolescents (M = 14 years, range = 12-16 years) and their parents (M = 46 years, range = 32-63 years). Results showed that only maternal self-criticism was directly related to adolescent self-criticism. However, both parents' achievement-oriented psychological control had an intervening role in the relation between parent and adolescent self-criticism in both boys and girls. Moreover, one parent's achievement-oriented psychological control was not predicted by the self-criticism of the other parent.

Transactional Links Between Teacher-Student Relationships and Adolescent Rule-Breaking Behavior and Behavioral School Engagement: Moderating Role of a Dopaminergic Genetic Profile Score.

Throughout adolescence, there is an increase in rule-breaking behavior and a decrease in behavioral school engagement. The role of teacher-student relationship quality in the development of these adjustment problems remains understudied. This study examined how adolescent-reported teacher-student affiliation and dissatisfaction and parent-reported rule-breaking behavior and behavioral engagement impact one another throughout adolescence. In addition, we examined the moderating effect of genes by means of a Biologically Informed Multilocus genetic Profile Score (BIMPS), a composite score reflecting the cumulative effect of multiple dopaminergic genes, with a higher score indicating higher dopamine signaling in the adolescent brain. We used three-year longitudinal data from 1111 adolescents (51 % boys; M age = 13.79), and their parents. Cross-lagged analyses revealed a transactional process in which adolescents who display more rule-breaking behavior and less behavioral engagement experienced increased subsequent dissatisfaction with their teachers, which in turn further increased their adjustment problems. Also, adolescents with more adjustment problems experienced decreased subsequent affiliation with their teachers. The other way around, adolescents' behavioral engagement also benefitted from positive relationships with teachers. Multi-group analyses revealed genetic moderation for behavioral engagement, but not for rule-breaking. Specifically, adolescents who had a BIMPS score coding for moderate levels of dopamine signaling (instead of high or low signaling) were most affected in their behavioral engagement when they experienced dissatisfaction with their teachers. Our study findings may guide schools in implementing interventions to create a supportive class and school environment including positive, supportive teacher-student relationships and indicate that providing a such a supportive school environment is important for all adolescents.

Behavioral Engagement, Peer Status, and Teacher-Student Relationships in Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study on Reciprocal Influences.

Although teachers and peers play an important role in shaping students' engagement, no previous study has directly investigated transactional associations of these classroom-based relationships in adolescence. This study investigated the transactional associations between adolescents' behavioral engagement, peer status (likeability and popularity), and (positive and negative) teacher-student relationships during secondary education. A large sample of adolescents was followed from Grade 7 to 11 (N = 1116; 49 % female; M age = 13.79 years). Multivariate autoregressive cross-lagged modeling revealed only unidirectional effects from teacher-student relationships and peer status on students' behavioral engagement. Positive teacher-student relationships were associated with more behavioral engagement over time, whereas negative teacher-student relationships, higher likeability and higher popularity were related to less behavioral engagement over time. We conclude that teachers and peers constitute different sources of influence, and play independent roles in adolescents' behavioral engagement.

Changes in cerebral CB1 receptor availability after acute and chronic alcohol abuse and monitored abstinence.

Involvement of the type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) in the effects of alcohol on the brain is supported by animal experiments, but how in vivo CB1R levels are altered in alcoholic patients is still unclear. To assess the short-time effects of a binge drinking episode on CB1R availability, 20 healthy social drinkers underwent [(18)F]MK-9470-positron emission tomography (PET) at baseline and after intravenous ethanol administration (ALC ACU). Moreover, 26 alcoholic patients underwent sequential CB1R PET after chronic heavy drinking (ALC CHR) and after 1 month of abstinence (ALC ABST). Seventeen healthy subjects served as controls. Compared with baseline, ALC ACU resulted in a global increase of CB1R availability (+15.8%). In contrast, a global decreased CB1R availability was found in ALC CHR patients (-16.1%) compared with controls, which remained unaltered after abstinence (-17.0%). Voxel-based analysis showed that ALC CHR patients had reduced CB1R availability, especially in the cerebellum and parieto-occipital cortex. After abstinence, reduced CB1R availability extended also to other areas such as the ventral striatum and mesotemporal lobe. In conclusion, whereas the acute alcohol effect is an increase in CB1R availability, chronic heavy drinking leads to reduced CB1R availability that is not reversible after 1 month of abstinence. Longer follow-up is required to differentiate whether this is a compensatory effect of repeated endocannabinoid overstimulation or an enduring trait-like feature. An enhanced CB1R signaling may offer a new therapeutic direction for treatment of the negative affective state produced by alcohol withdrawal and abstinence, which is critical for the maintenance of alcohol addiction.